初高中英语衔接教材

第五章 词法
第一节：名词
一、名词的数
1．单数和复数
　 可数名词有单数和复数两种形式。复数形式通常是在单数形式后加词尾“-s”构成，其主要变法如下：
　（1）一般情况在词尾加-s，例如：book→books，girl→girls，boy→boys，pen→pens,doctor→doctors, boy→boys。
（2）以s，x，ch，sh，结尾的词加-es，例如：bus→buses，class→classes
box→boxes，watch→watches，brush→brushes。
　（3）以ce, se, ze,（d）ge结尾的名词加s，例如：orange—oranges。
（4）以辅音母加y结尾的词变“y”为“i”再加-es,例如：city→cities, factory→factories, country→countries, family→families。但要注意的是以元音字母加y结尾的名词的复数形式只加s，如：boy→boys, day→days。
　（5）以o结尾的词多数都加-es。例如:hero→heroes，potato→potatoes，tomato→tomatoes,但词末为两个元音字母的词只加-s。例如：zoo→zoos，radio→radios，还有某些外来词也只加-s，例如：photo→photos，piano→pianos。
（6） 以f或fe结尾的词，多数变f为v再加-es，例如：knife→knives，leaf→leaves, half→halves。
　　复数词尾s（或es）的读音方法如下表所示。
复数词尾s（或es）的读音方法
情　况 读法 例　词
在[p][t][k][f]等清辅音后 [s] cups, hats, cakes
在[s][z][t][d3][F]等音后 [iz] glasses, pages, oranges, buses, watches,faces
在[b][d][g][v]等浊辅音后 [z] beds, dogs, cities, knives
　（7）少数名词有不规则的复数形式，例如：man→men，woman→women，tooth→teeth，foot→feet，child→children，mouse→mice。
　　【注意】与man和woman构成的合成词，其复数形式也是-men和-women。例如：an Englishman，two Englishmen。但German不是合成词，故复数形式为 Germans；man, woman等作定语时，它的单复数以其所修饰的名词的单复数而定，如：men　workers， women teachers。
　　有个别名词单复数一样，例如：Chinese，Japanese，sheep，deer，fish等。但当fish表示不同种类的鱼时，可以加复数词尾。
　（8）单数形式但其意为复数的名词有：people, police等。
（9）数词+名词作定语时，这个名词一般保留单数形式，中间加连字符。例如 an 8-year-old girl, a ten-mile walk。
　（10）还有些名词仅有复数形式，如：trousers，clothes，chopsticks，glasses，goods，ashes，scissors，compasses。
　（11）只用作单数的复数形式的名词有：
　　 科学名词：physics, mathematics/maths
　　 游戏名称：bowls
　　 专有名词：the United States, Niagara Falls
　　 其他名词：news, falls
2．不可数名词“量”的表示方法
　　在英语中，不可数名词如果要表示“量的概念”，可以用以下两种方法：
　（1）用much, a little, a lot of/lots of, some, any等表示多少，例如：
　　The rich man has a lot of money．
　　There is some milk in the bottle．
　　Is there any water in the glass？
　　I don't like winter because there's too much snow and ice．
　（2）用a piece of 这类定语，例如：
　　a piece of paper a piece of wood a piece of bread
　　a bottle of orange a glass of water（milk） a cup of tea
　　a cup of tea a bag of rice three bags of rice
　　如果要表示“两杯茶”、“四张纸”这类概念时，在容器后加复数，例如：
　　two cups of tea
　　four pieces of paper
　　three glasses of water
　　不可数名词也可用a lot of, lots of, some, any, much等来修饰。
二、名词的所有格
　　名词所有格，用来表示人或物的所有，以及领属关系。
1. 表示有生命的名词的所有格其单数形式是加 's,其复数形式是s'，例如：a student's room, students' rooms, father's shoes。
2. 如其结尾不是s的复数形式仍加 's，如：Children's Day。
3. 在表示时间、距离、长度、重量、价格、世界、国家等名词的所有格要用 's，例如：a twenty minutes' walk，ten miles' journey，a boat's length，two pounds' weight, ten dollars' worth。
4. 无生命名词的所有格则必须用of结构，例如：a map of China，the end of this term，the capital of our country, the color of the flowers。
5. 双重所有格，例如：a friend of my father's。
【注意】
　　如果两个名词并列，并且分别有 's，则表示“分别有”，例如：John's and Mary's rooms（约翰和玛丽各有一间，共两间）；Tom's and Mary's bikes（两人各自的自行车）。
两个名词并列，只有一个's，则表示“共有”，例如：John and Mary's room（约翰和玛丽共有一间）；Tom and Mary's mother（即Tom与Mary是兄妹）。
巩固练习
★名词单数变复数的方法
1. 基本变化: boy→______, pen→________， class→________, fox→_______, brush→__________, watch→__________，stomach→____________， baby→________，safe→_________, roof→_________, belief→_________,thief→_________,life→_________,knife→_________,leaf→_________,, wife→_________,, shelf→_________, self→_________, half→_________, wolf→_________, hero→_________, tomato→_________, potato→_________, piano→_________, photo→________, zoo→_______, radio→______, video→_________。
2. 不规则变化: man→______, woman→_________, policeman→_________, Englishman→____________, German→___________, foot→______, tooth→______, goose→_________, child→__________, mouse→________, sheep→______, deer →______, fish→______, Chinese→______, Japanese→________
3. a __________ writer / some _________ writers(女作家), a______ friend/ some ________friends 女朋友, ________plan(销售计划)，_________ car（跑车）。
★名词所有格
1. a man’s voice=the voice ____ a man ; __________(beginners) class 初级班;
This is ________________ room. 这是汤姆和迈克共住的房间。
It’s less than two _________ drive from here.开车到那里不到2个钟头。
We had a great evening at Paul’s. 我们在__________度过了一个愉快的夜晚。
She bought a bottle of vitamin tablets at the chemist’s. 她在_________买了一瓶维生素片。
You’ll find the answers at the back ____ _____ _______. 在书后你可找到答案。
2. a, an, this, that, some, several, no, each, every…+名词+of +名词性物主代词/名词-’s。
This tool ____ ______ is useful. 他的这个工具很有用。
Two friends of my ___________ came to see me. 我父亲的两个朋友来看我。
【能力提升】
1．--- Where have you been, Tim
　 --- I’ve been to ______.
　A. the Henry house B. the Henry family
　C. The Henry’s home D. Henry’s
2．In England, if ____ is in the middle of the day, the evening meal is called supper.
　A. food B. lunch C. breakfast D. dinner
3．You looked for it twice, but you haven’t found it. Why not try ____ .
　A. three times B. a third time C. the third time D. once
4．--- They are thirsty. Will you please give them ______
　 --- Certainly.
　A. some bottles of waters B. some bottles of water
　C. some bottle of water D. some bottle of waters
5．Mike hurt one of his ______ in the accident yesterday.
　A. tooth B. feet C. hand D. ear
6．There is some _______ on the plate.
　A. cakes B. meat C. potato D. pears
7．In England, the last name is the _______ .
　A. family name B. middle C. given name D. full name
8．They are going to fly _______ to Beijing.
　A. Germen B. Germany C. Germanys D. Germans
9．The______ has two _______ .
　A. boys; watches B. boy; watch C. boy; watches D. boys; watch
10．The little baby has two _______ already.
　A. tooth B. tooths C. teeth D. teeths
11．What’s your _______ for being late again
　A. idea B. key C. excuse D. news
12．--- It’s dangerous here. We’d better go out quickly.
　　--- But I think we should let _______ go out first.
　A. woman and children B. women and child
　C. woman and child D. women and children
13．--- You can see Mr. Smith if there is a sign “_______ ”on the door of his shop.
　　--- Thanks.
　A.ENTRANCE B.BUSINESS HOURS
　C.THIS SIDE UP D.NO SMOKING
14．Are they going to have a picnic on _______
　A. Children’s Day B. Childrens’s Day
　C. Childrens Day D. Children Day
15．Where are the students Are they in _______
　A. the Room 406 B. Room 406 C. the 406 Room D. 406 Room
【练习答案】
1.D 2.B 3.B 4.B 5.B 6.B 7.A 8.D 9.C 10.C 11.C 12.D 13.B 14.A 15.B
第二节：形容词、副词
1. 形容词的用法
(1) 形容词在句中作定语, 表语, 宾语补足语。 例如：
Our country is a beautiful country. （作定语）
The fish went bad. （作表语）
We keep our classroom clean and tidy. （作宾语补足语）
(2) 形容词修饰something, anything, nothing, everything等不定代词时,形容词放在名词后面。
　 I have something important to tell you.
　 Is there anything interesting in the film.
(3) 用 and 或 or 连接起来的两个形容词作定语时一般把它们放在被修饰的名词后面。起进一步解释的作用。
　 Everybody, man and woman, old and young, should attend the meeting.
　 You can take any box away, big or small.
(4) the＋形容词表示一类人或物
The rich should help the poor.
2. 副词的用法
(1) 副词在句中可作状语,表语和定语。
He studies very hard. （作状语）
Life here is full of joy. （作定语）
When will you be back （作表语）
副词按其用途和含义可分为下面五类：
1)时间副词
时间副词通常用来表示动作的时间。常见的时间副词有：now today, tomorrow, yesterday, before, late, early, never, seldom, sometimes, often, usually, always等。例如：
He often comes to school late.
What are we going to do tomorrow
He is never been to Beijing.
2)地点副词
地点副词通常用来表示动作发生的地点。常见的地点副词有：here, there, inside, outside, home, upstairs, downstairs, anywhere, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, down, up, off, on, in, out等。例如：
I met an old friend of mine on my way home.
He went upstairs.
Put down your name here.
3)方式副词
方式副词一般都是回答“怎样的？”这类问题的，其中绝大部分都是由一个形容词加词尾-ly构成的, 有少数方式副词不带词尾-ly, 它们与形容词同形。常见的方式副词有：anxiously, badly, bravely, calmly, carefully, proudly, rapidly, suddenly, successfully, angrily, happily, slowly, warmly, well, fast, slow, quick, hard, alone, high, straight, wide等。例如：
The old man walked home slowly.
Please listen to the teacher carefully.
The birds are flying high.
He runs very fast.
4)程度副词
程度副词多数用来修饰形容词和副词，有少数用来修饰动词或介词短语。常见的程度副词有：much, (a) little, a bit, very, so, too, enough, quite, rather, pretty, greatly, completely, nearly, almost, deeply, hardly, partly等。例如：
Her pronunciation is very good.
She sings quite well.
I can hardly agree with you.
5)疑问副词是用来引导特殊疑问句的副词。常见的疑问副词有：how, when, where, why等。例如：
How are you getting along with your studies
Where were you yesterday
Why did you do that
(2)副词在句中的位置
1)多数副词作状语时放在动词之后。如果动词带有宾语，则放在宾语之后。例如：
Mr Smith works very hard.
She speaks English well.
2)频度副词作状语时，通常放在行为动词之前，情态动词，助动词和be动词之后。例如：
He usually gets up early.
I’ve never heard him singing.
She is seldom ill.
3)程度副词一般放在所修饰的形容词和副词的前面, 但enough作副词用时，通常放在被修饰词的后面。例如：
It is a rather difficult job.
He runs very fast.
He didn’t work hard enough.
4)副词作定语时，一般放在被修饰的名词之后。例如：
On my way home, I met my uncle.
The students there have a lot time to do their own research work.
(3)部分常用副词的用法
1) very, much
这两个副词都可表示“很”，但用法不同。Very用来修饰形容词和副词的原级，而much用来修饰形容词和副词的比较级。例如：
She is a very nice girl
I’m feeling much better now.
Much可以修饰动词，而very则不能。例如：
I don’t like the idea much.
They did not talk much.
2) too, either
这两个副词都表示“也”，但too用于肯定句，either用于否定句。例如：
She can dance, and I can dance, too.
I haven’t read the book and my brother hasn’t either.
3) already, yet
already一般用于语肯定句，yet一般用于否定句。例如：
He has already left.
Have you heard from him yet
He hasn’t answered yet.
4) so, neither
so和neither都可用于倒装句， 但so表示肯定，neither表示否定。
例如：
My brother likes football and so do I.
My brother doesn’t like dancing and neither do I.
3. 形容词和副词的比较级和最高级
(1) 两个人或事物的比较时（不一定每一方只有一个人或一个事物），用比较级。
　　 Our teacher is taller than we are.
　　 The boys in her class are taller than the boys in your class.
(2) most 同形容词连用而不用 the,表示 "极,很,非常, 十分"。
　　 It's most dangerous to be here.
　　 在这儿太危险。
(3)“The+形容词比较级..., the+形容词比较级...”表示“越... 就越...”。
　　 The more you study, the more you know.
　(4) “形容词比较级 + and + 形容词比较级”, 表示 “ 越来越...”。
　　 It's getting hotter and hotter.
　(5) 主语+谓语(系动词)+as+形容词原形+as+从句。表示两者对比相同。
　　 This box is as big as mine.
　(6) the + 形容词，表示某种人。
　　 He always helps the poor.
　(7) 形容词和副词最高级用于三个或三个以上的人和物进行比较。
　　 Shanghai is one of the biggest cities in China.
巩固练习
★形容词和副词·比较等级
1. 基本形式
old—______—_______ high—______—__________; big—______—_______ thin—______—___________ busy—_____—_______ heavy—______—__________ ; large—______—________ free—_______—_________
important—____________—___________ difficult—______________—______________
2.比较等级前常见修饰语归纳
It’s ___ _______ colder today than it was yesterday. 今天比昨天稍冷一点。
She’s much/ a good deal better today.译：______________________________
There are far more people than we expected. 译：______________________________
It was even colder than yesterday. 译：______________________________
This is by far the best. 译：______________________________
Hainan is China’s _________ ___________ island. 海南是中国第二大岛。
【能力提升】
1．There are many young trees on sides of the road.
　 A. every 　B. each 　C. both 　D. all
2．--- It’s so cold today.
　 --- Yes, it’s than it was yesterday.
　 A. more cold 　B. more colder 　C. much colder 　D. cold
3．Little Tom has friends, so he often plays alone.
　　A. more　 B. a little　 C. many 　D. few
4．She isn’t so at maths as you are.
　 A. well　 B. good　 C. better　 D. best
5．Peter writes of the three.
　 A. better　 B. best　 C. good　 D. well
6．He is enough to carry the heavy box.
　 A. stronger　 B. much stronger　 C. strong　 D. the strongest
7．I bought exercise-books with money.
　 A. a few; a few 　　B. a few; a little
　 C. a little; a few D. a little; a little
8．The box is heavy for the girl carry.
　 A. too; to　 B. to; too　 C. so; that　 D. no; to
9．The ice in the lake is about one meter . It’s strong enough to skate on.
　 A. long　 B. high　 C. thick　 D. wide
10．Wu Lin ran faster than the other boys in the sports meeting.
　 A. so 　B. much 　C. very D. too
11. Jone looks so _______ today because she has got an “A” in her maths test.
A. happy B. happily C. angry D. angrily
12. The smile on my father’s face showed that he was ______ with me.
A. sad B. pleased C. angry D. sorry
13. ---Mum, could you buy me a dress like this
---Certainly, we can buy ______ one than this, but ______ this.
A. a better; better than B. a worse; as good as
C. a cheaper; as good as D. a more important; good as
14. ---This digital camera is really cheap!
---The ______ the better. I’m short of money, you see.
A. cheap B. cheaper C. expensive D. more expensive
15. If you want to learn English well, you must use it as _______ as possible.
A. often B. long C. hard D. soon
16. Paul has ______ friends except me, and sometimes he feels lonely.
A. many B. some C. few D. more
17. English people _____ use Mr. Before a man’s first name.
A. never B. usually C. often D. sometimes
18. ---One more satellite was sent up into space in China in May.
---Right. The government spoke ______ that.
A. highly for B. high of
C. well of D. highly of
19. ---Remember this, children. ______ careful you are, ______ mistakes you will make.
---We know, Miss Gao.
A. The more; the more B. The fewer; the more
C. The more; the fewer D. The less; the less
20. I have ________ to do today.
A. anything important B. something important
C. important nothing D. important something
【练习答案】
1.C 2.C 3.D 4.B 5.B 6.C 7.B 8.A 9.C 10.B 11.A 12.B 13.C 14.B 15.A 16.C 17.A 18.D 19.C 20.B
第三节 动词
1.动词的时态
　　英语时态用共有十六种时态，其中常用的有8种，它们是：一般现在时、一般过去时、一般将来时、现在进行时、现在完成时、过去进行时、过去完成时和过去将来时。
（1）一般现在时的基本用法
1) 经常性或习惯性的动作，常与表示频度的时间状语连用。
　 时间状语： every…, sometimes,　at…, on Sunday
　 I leave home for school at 7 every morning.
2) 客观真理，客观存在，科学事实。
　 The earth moves around the sun.
　 Shanghai lies in the east of China.
3) 表示格言或警句中。
　 Pride goes before a fall.
【注意】此用法如果出现在宾语从句中，即使主句是过去时，从句谓语也要用一般现在时。
例：Columbus proved that the earth is round..
4) 现在时刻的状态、能力、性格、个性。
　 I don't want so much.
5) 某些动词如 come, go, move, stop, leave, arrive, be, finish, continue, start 等，在一般现在时句中可用来表示将来肯定会发生的动作。
　　 The train comes at 3 o'clock.
　 6) 在时间状语从句或条件状语从句中，一般现在时代替一般将来时。
　　 I'll help you as soon as you have problem.
　　 Tell Xiao Li about it if you meet him.
（2）一般过去时的用法： 　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　
　　表示过去某一时刻或某一段时间内所发生的动作或情况，通常一般过去式带有表示动作时间状语的词，词组或从句,如 yesterday, the day before last, last week, two days ago 等,上下文清楚时可以不带时间状语。
　　I worked in that factory last year.
【注意】
1) 过去经常反复发生的动作，也可用used to或would加动词原形来表达，例如：
I used to go fishing on Sundays.
2) “used to”也可用于表示过去曾经存在过的状态。例如：
This river used to be clean.
（3）一般将来时的用法
1）表示将来的动作或状态。例如：
　　 I shall attend the meeting tomorrow.
2）表示将来反复发生的动作或存在的状态。例如：
He will go to see his mother every Saturdays.
　 3）表示将来的意愿，决心，许诺， 命令等时常用will，征求对方意见，主语是第一人称时，常用shall。
　　 I will do my best to catch up with them.
　　 Shall I open the door
　 4）be + going + 动词不定式。也是一种将来时句型，表示打算，计划，最近
或将来要作的某事。
　　 I am going to Beijing next week.
　 5）be + 动词不定式。表示有职责，义务，可能，约定，意图等。
　　 There is to be a meeting this afternoon.
　　 We are to meet the guests at the station.
　 6）be about + 动词不定式，表示马上，很快作某事。
　　 They are about to leave.
（4）现在进行时的用法
　 1）现在进行时的用法表示说话者说话时正在发生或者进行的动作， 它注重
现在正在进行的动作，而不管动作从什么时间开始，到什么时间结束。
　　 What are you doing now
I am looking for my key.
　 2）现在进行时表示目前一段时间内正在进行的动作（但说话时这个动作不一
定在进行）。
　　 The students are preparing for the examination.
3）某些动词的现在进行时可以表示即将发生的动作，这些动词有 arrive,
come, leave, start等。
　　 They are going to Hong Kong tomorrow.
【注意】
有些动词一般不可以用于进行时态
①表示状态的动词，尤其是静态动词，如：be, have
②表示认识、知觉和情感的动词，如：know, think, hear, find, see, like, want, wish, prefer等。
（5）现在完成时的用法
　 1) 现在完成时表示在说话之前已经完成或刚完成的动作。
　　 I have bought a ten-speed bicycle.
　　 They have cleaned the classroom.
　 2) 现在完成时表示动作从过去开始持续到现在，或者还有可能持续下去的动作或状态。 现在完成时常与for 和 since 引导的短语或从句连用。
　　 We have lived here since 1976.
　　 They have waited for more than two hours.
【注意】
一般过去时与现在完成时的区别
　 过去时表示过去某时发生的动作或单纯叙述过去的事情，强调动作；现在完成时为过去发生的，强调过去的事情对现在的影响，强调的是影响；一般过去时常与具体的时间状语连用。
试比较：
I saw this film yesterday.（强调看的动作发生过了，不涉及现在）
I have seen this film. （强调对现在的影响，电影的内容已经知道了。）
（6）过去进行时的用法
表示过去某时正在进行的状态或动作。例如：
　　I was watching TV when she came to see me.
【注意】
过去进行时和一般过去时都是过去发生的事情，但过去进行时侧重表示过去某一时刻正在进行的动作或所处的状态，强调动作的连续进行，而一般过去时则表示单纯的过去事实，例如：
They were building a house last month. （上个月正在建造，建造好与否不知）
They built a new house last month. （上个月建造好了，动作已经完成）
（7）过去完成时的用法
　　过去完成时表示过去某一时刻或某一动作之前完成的动作或所处的状态，过去完成时常和 by , before 等词组成的短语和从句连用。
　　We had already learned two thousand words by the end of last year.
　　When we arrived at the station, they had waited for more than twenty minutes.
（8）过去将来时的用法
过去将来时表示从过去某个时间看将要发生的动作或存在地状态，过去将来时较多地被运用在宾语从句中。例如：
They were going to have a meeting.
I told him that I would see him off at the station.
巩固练习
★时态
1．He often _________(come) late.
Summer________( follow) spring. 春天之后是夏天。
Here _________(come) the bus. = The bus is coming. 车来了。
I will give it to him as soon as I_______( see )him.
He will come if you ________(invite) him.
The plane _______(take) off at 11:30 and ________(arrive) in Shanghai at l:20.
2. He__________(be) here just now.
We often _________(play) together when we were children. 我们小时候常在一起玩。
He opened the door,______（rush）out and then ________(disappear).
—Your phone number again I _______(don’t/didn’t) quite catch it. —It’s 2566666.
3. ______________ a meeting. 他们在开会。
______________ at an evening school. 我在上夜校。
I’m leaving tomorrow. 译_____________________________
My father is always losing his car keys. 译_____________________________ (不满)
She’s always helping people. 译_____________________________ (赞扬) )
4. During the summer of 1999 she was travelling in Europe. 译_____________________________
He said he was leaving for home in a day or two. 译_____________________________
She was always thinking of others. 译____________________
5. At this time tomorrow, I’ll be taking a test. 译_____________________________
We’ll be spending the winter in Australia. 我们将在澳大利亚过冬。＝We’re spending the winter in Australia.
6. I’ll (=I ________/________) do a better job next time. 下次我要干得好些。
What are you going to do tomorrow 译_____________________________
Look at the dark clouds; it’s going to rain. 译_____________________________
7. I knew you would agree. 译_____________________________。
8. I ___________ the film already. 我已经看过那部电影了。
We____________thousands of trees in the past few years. 过去几年我们种了成千上万棵树。
So far there ______________ no bad news. 到现在为止还没有什么坏消息。
I saw Julia in April and I __________ her since. 我四月见到朱莉娅，从那之后就没见到她了。
It is the first time that I ______________(visit) your beautiful city.
That’s the most interesting book I____________________. 这是我看过的最有意思的书。
9. By the time he was twelve, Edison ________________(begin) to make a living by himself.
When Jack arrived he learned Mary _________________(be away) for almost an hour.
2.动词的语态
语态有两种：主动语态和被动语态。
主语是动作的发出者为主动语态；主语是动作的接受者为被动语态。
（1）被动语态
1) 被动语态最基本的句型结构是： be +及物动词过去分词
2) 被动语态中的谓语动词一定要是及物动词
因为被动句中的主语是动作的承受者，某些短语动词如look after, think of, take care of, work out, laugh at等，也可用于被动语态。
The children were taken good care of by her.
【注意】
短语动词中的介词或副词变成被动语态时不可遗漏。
3) 主动语态变为被动语态要加“to”的情况
若宾语补足语是不带to 的不定式，变为被动语态时，该不定式前要加“to”。此类动词为感官动词，如：feel, hear, help, listen to, look at, make, observe, see, notice, watch等。例如：
The teacher made me go out of the classroom.
I was made to go out of the classroom (by the teacher).
4) 主动形式表示被动意义
如wash, clean, look, cut, sell, read, wear, feel, draw, write, sell等动词虽然用做主动形式却表示被动的意义。例如：
The food tastes good.
巩固练习
★被动语态
Rice ____ ________ (grow) in south China. / The glass ______ _________ (break)yesterday.
The project _____ _______ ________ (carry) out. 这个计划正在执行中。
This road ______ ________ _________ (build) this time last year.
The cars _____ _____ _______ (send) abroad by sea. 这些汽车将由水路运往国外。
The manager said the project _______ ______ ___________ (complete)by the end of the year. 经理说这个工程在年底前将会完成。
This novel ______ ______ ___________ (translate) into several languages. 这本小说已被译成了几种语言。
When I got to the theatre, I found the tickets ______ already ______ ______ （sell）out.
The environment ________ ______ _________ (improve). 环境应当改善。
3.非谓语动词
对非谓语动词的考点是：感官动词后不定式作宾语补足语和动词ing形式作宾语补足语的用法；一些特殊动词的动词不定式作宾语补足语时不带to，但变为被动语态时就要带to；有些动词既可接不定式也可接动词ing形式作宾语，但表达的意思不同。
（1）非谓语动词的形式
非谓语动词指的是在句中起名词，形容词或副词作用的动词形式，而不是作谓语的动词形式。 动词的非谓语形式分为动名词，分词，动词不定式。
（2）不定式作宾语补足语
Father will not allow us to play on the street.　　　　　　　
（3）不定式作目的状语
He ran so fast as to catch the first bus.　
（4）用不定式和分词作补足语都可以的动词
这样的动词有感官动词如：see, hear, look, notice, observe, feel等，使役动词如：have, make, leave, keep, get等。接不定式表示动作的完整性，真实性；+doing 表示动作的连续性，进行性。
　 I saw him work in the garden yesterday.
　 昨天我看见他在花园里干活了。(强调“我看见了”这个事实)
　 I saw him working in the garden yesterday.（强调“我见他正干活”这个动作）
昨天我见他正在花园里干活。
（5）用不带to不定式的情况
使役动词如： let, have, make等和感官动词如： see, watch, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作宾补，省略to。在被动语态中则to不能省掉。
（6）接动名词与不定式意义不同
1) stop to do　停止，中断做某事后去做另一件事。
stop doing　停止做某事。
　　2) forget to do　忘记要去做某事。　 (未做)
　 forget doing　忘记做过某事。　　 (已做)
3) remember to do 记得去做某事。　 (未做)
　 remember doing　记得做过某事。 (已做)
4) try to do　　努力，企图做某事。
　 try doing　 试验，试着做某事。
5) go on to do　做了一件事后，接着做另一件事。
go on doing　 继续做原来做的事。
　 6) mean to do　 打算、想
mean doing　意味着
拓展辨析
★谓语动词与非谓语动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )
根据其是否能用作谓语，动词可分为谓语动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )和非谓语动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )。谓语动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )在句中可用作谓语，而非谓语动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )则不用作谓语(但可用作主语、宾语、补语、状语、定语等)。非谓语动词包括不定式、动名词、分词（现在分词和过去分词）三种：
He lives in Shanghai. (live 为__________动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 ))
I want to go home. (want 为__________动词，to go 为___________动词)
He enjoyed watching TV. (enjoy为________动词，watching为_________动词)
He had his hair cut. 他理发了。(had 为__________动词，cut 为___________动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 ))
4. 容易混淆的常用动词的辨析
(1) say, speak, talk, tell的用法。
1) say表示讲话，作为及物动词使用，后跟宾语或宾语从句。
He said he would go there.
It's time to leave. We have to say goodbye to you.
2)speak表示“讲话”，一般作为不及物动词使用，而有时作为及物动词后面跟上各种语言作为宾语。
Do you speak English
May I speak to Mr Pope, please
3) talk表示“谈话”，是不及物动词，与to , about, with等连用，才可宾语。
What are you talking about
Mr Jackson is talking with my father in the office now.
4) tell 表示“告诉，讲述”是及物动词，可以带双宾语或复合宾语。
She told us an interesting story yesterday.
My teacher told me that we would have an English exam the next month.
(2) look, see, watch和watch的用法。
1) look强调“看”这个动作，是不及物动词，常与at连用，然后接宾语。
Look! The girl is swimming in the lake.
Look at the picture carefully. Can you find something unusual
2) see 指“看见”某物，强调的是结果。
They can't see the words on the blackboard.
Does Lily often go to see a film on Sunday
3) watch 指的是“观看”，“注视”之意。
The twins are watching TV now.
He will go to watch a volleyball match.
4） read指“看书”、“看报”、“阅读”之意。
Don't read in the sun.
I like to read newspapers when I am free.
(3) borrow, lend和keep的区别。
1) borrow意思为“借入”，常常与from连用，是非延续性动词，表示瞬间即能完成的动作。
Meimei borrowed a book from the library just now.
May I borrow your dictionary
2) lend 是“借出”之意，常常与to连用，同borrow一样，是非延续性动词，只表示瞬间即能完成的动作。
Uncle Wany has lent his car to Mr Li.
Could you lend us your radio, please
3) keep是“保存”的意思，动作可以延续。
How long can the recorder be kept
The farmer kept the pat for two weeks.
(4) bring, take, carry 和get的用法。
1) bring意思为“拿来”、“带来”。指将某物或某人从别处“带来”。
Bring me the book, please.
May I bring Jim to see you next Saturday
2) take意思是“拿走”，“带走”，把某物或某人从这里“带来”或“拿到”某处之意。
It looks like rain. Take a raincoat with you.
Mother took the little girl to the next room.
3) carry 是“带着、搬运、携带”的意思，指随身携带，有背着、扛着、抱着、提着的含义，不表明来去的方向。
Do you always carry a handbag
The box is heavy. Can you carry it
4) get是去某处将某物拿回来。
Please go to my office to get some chalk.
There is no water in the bottle. Why not get some
(5) wear, put on和dress的区别
1) wear是“穿着”“戴着”的意思，可以用于穿衣服、穿鞋、戴帽子、戴手套、佩戴首饰等，强调“穿着”的状态。
Tom always wears black shoes.
He wears a raincoat even when it is fine.
She doesn't like to wear a red flowers in her hair.
2) put on是“穿上”“戴上”的意思，可以用于穿衣服、穿鞋、戴帽等。着重于穿戴的动作。
It's cold. You'd better put on your coat.
He put on his hat and went out of the room.
3) dress可以作及物动词和不及物动词，有“穿着”“打扮”的意思。作“穿着”解时，只用于穿衣服，不用于穿鞋、戴帽、戴手套。作为及物动词用时，它的宾语是人，不是衣服。dress sb. （给某人穿衣服），而wear作“穿着”用时，也是及物动词，但它的宾语是物，不是人，即wear sth.（穿着衣物）。
She always dresses well.
Get up and dress quickly.
Mary is dressing her child.
(6) take, spend 和use的用法。
1) take指做某事用多少时间，句型是：It takes/took/ will take + sb. +some time + to do sth.
It took me three days to finish the work.
It will take you a while week to travel thought the forest.
It takes only one hour to fly to Shanghai.
2) spend指某人在某事（物）上花费时间或钱。句型是：
Someone spends + money/time + on something(in) doing sth.
She spent more than 500 yuan on that coat.
He didn't spend much time on his lessons.
He spent much time (in) correcting students' exercises.
Mother spent her evenings (in) washing clothes.
3) use表示使用工具、手段等。
Do you know how to use the computer
Shall we use your car
(7)reach, get 和arrive的区别。
1) reach是及物动词，后面要直接跟表示地点的名词作宾语。
After the train had left, they reached the station
We reached the top of the mountain at last.
2) get是不及动词，常与to连用，再接名词，后面接表示地点的副词时，不用to，get to常用于口语中。
When the students got to the cinema, the film had begun.
My sister was cooking when mother got home.
3) arrive是不及物动词，表示到达一个小地方时，用arrive at, 到达一个大地方时用arrive in。
The soldiers arrived at a small village
The foreigners will arrive in Shanghai tomorrow.
巩固练习
★动词·动词的基本形式
五种基本形式：动词原形、一般现在时第三人称单数 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )、过去式、过去分词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )和现在分词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )。
A. 第三人称单数形式的构成 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )
write—______, guess—_________, mix—________, finish—_________, catch—________, study—_________
注：不规则变化的有have—_____, be—_____, go—_______, do—_______等。
B. 现在分词的构成 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )
study—_________, work—_________, write—_______, move—_______, get—________, begin—_________lie—______, die—_______
C. 过去式和过去分词的构成 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )
ask—_______, work—________, love—________, dance—__________, try—_________, study—_________, stop—_________, permit—__________。
◆注意不规则变化的动词，如：have—_____, be—_____, go—______, do—______, give--_______, leave--________等。
★及物动词与不及物动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )
根据其后是否带宾语，动词可分为及物动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )(带宾语)和不及物动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )(不带宾语)。如：
When will he arrive 他什么时候到？(arrive 不带宾语，为_______动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 ))
He reached Beijing yesterday. 他昨天到达北京。(reach 带了宾语，为________动词)
有的动词既可用作及物动词也可用作不及物动词：
He is writing. 他在写字。（________用法）
He is writing a letter. 他在写信。（_______用法）
★延续性动词与非延续性动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )
根据动作是否延续，动词可分为延续性动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )和非延续性动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )：延续性动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )就是指所表示的动作可以延续的动词，非延续性动词 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网 )就是指所表示的动作不可以延续的动词。
It rained for three days. (rain为_________动词)
She arrived yesterday evening. 她是昨天晚上到的。(arrive为__________动词)
Mother bought us some new clothes. 妈妈给我们买了一些新衣服。(buy为__________动词)
I waited for you for half an hour. 我等了你半个钟头。(wait为延续性动词)
注：非延续性动词在肯定句中通常不与表示时间段连用的for短语连用。
能力提升
1. Listen! Some of the girls ________ about Harry Potter. Let’s join them.
A. are talking B. talk
C. will talk D. talked
2. Our teacher, Miss Chen, ________English on the radio the day before yesterday.
A. teaches B. taught
C. will teach D. had taught
3. I don’t think I _________ you in that dress before.
A. have seen B. was seeing
C. saw D. see
4. Susan’s parents have bought a large house with a swimming pool. It _______ be very expensive.
A. must B. can C. mustn’t D. can’t
5. Coffee is ready. How nice it ________ ! Would you like some
A. looks B. smells C. sounds D. feels
6. “ Mr. Zhu, you’d better _______ too much meat. You are already over weight,” said the doctor.
A. not to eat B. to eat C. not eat D. eat
7. “Don’t always make Michael ________ this or that. He is already a big boy, dear,” Mr. Bush said to his wife.
A. do B. to do C. does D. did
8. Sorry, I can’t hear you clearly. Will you please ________ your E-mail address I’ll write it down.
A. review B. recite C. report D. repeat
9. Don’t ________ your coat, Tom! It’s easy to catch cold in spring.
A. take away B. take off C. take down D. take out
10. You _______ go and ask Meimei. She _______ know the answer.
A. must; can B. must; may C. need; can D. can; may
11. I’m sorry you’ve missed the train. It ________ 10 minutes ago.
A. left B. has left C. had left D. has been left
12. I bought a new dictionary and it ________ me 30 yuan.
A. paid B. spent C. took D. cost
13. ---Mum, may I go out and play basketball
---_______ you _______ your homework yet
A. Do; finish B. Are; finishing C. Did; finishing D. Have; finished
14. I have to go now. Please remember to ________ the lights when you leave.
A. turn off B. turn down C. turn up D. turn on
15. A talk on Chinese history ________ in the school next week.
A. be given B. has been given C. will be given D. will give
16. Look! How heavy the rain is! You’d better ________.
A. don’t go now B. stay here when it stops
C. not leave until it stops D. not to leave at once
17. You may go fishing if your work ________.
A. is done B. will be done C. has done D. have done
18. Cotton _______ nice and soft.
A. is felt B. is feeling C. feel D. feels
19. ---Who cleaned the blackboard yesterday, Dick
---John _________.
A. cleaned B. does C. did D. is
20. ---Linda had nothing for breakfast this morning, _______
---No. She got up too late.
A. had she B. hadn’t she C. did she D. didn’t she
【练习答案】
1.A 2.B 3.A 4.A 5.B 6.C 7.A 8.D 9.B 10.D 11.A 12.D 13.D 14.A 15.C 16.C 17.A 18.D 19.C 20.C
5. 短语动词
1. 短语动词的分类
(1)动词＋介词
常见的有look for, look after, ask for, laugh at, hear of 等。这类短语动词的宾语只能放在介词后。如：
Don’t laugh at others.
Tom asked his parents for a bike.
(2)动词＋副词
常见的有give up, pick up, think over, find out, hand in,等。这类短语动词的宾语如果是名词，既可放在副词前边，又可放在副词后边；宾语如果是人称代词或反身代词，则要放在副词前边。如：
You’ll hand in your homework tomorrow.
Please don’t forget to hand it in.
(3)动词＋副词＋介词
常见的有 go on with, catch up with等。这类短语动词的宾语只能放在介词后边。如：
Go on and I’ll catch up with you in five minutes.
After a short rest, he went on with his research work.
(4)动词＋名词＋介词
常见的有take care of, make use of, pay attention to, make fun of 等。这类短语动词的宾语只能放在介词后边。如：
You should pay attention to your handwriting.
We should make full use of our time.
(5)动词＋形容词
常见的有leave open, set free, cut open等。这类短语动词的宾语如果是名词，则宾语可放在形容词的前边，也可放在后边；宾语如果是人称代词或反身代词，则必须放在形容词前边。如：
The prisoners were set free.
He cut it open.
(6)动词＋名词
常见的有take place, make friends等。这类短语动词用作不及物动词。如：
This story took place three years ago.
I make friends with a lot of people.
2. 短语动词的辨析
(1)be made in（在……生产或制造），be made of(由……组成或构成)
(2)come down(下来;落)，come along(来；随同)，come to oneself(苏醒)，come
true(实现)，come out(花开；发芽；出现；出来)，come over（过来；顺便来访），come in(进来)，come on(来吧；跟着来；赶快), come up with(找到；提出)
(3)do one’s best(尽最大努力), do well in(在……干得好), do one’s
homework(做作业)，do some reading(阅读)
(4)fall asleep(入睡)，fall behind(落在…..后面)，fall off(从……掉下)，fall
down(到下；跌倒)
(5)get down(下来；落下)，get on(上车)，get to(到达)，get up(起床)，get back(回
来；取回)，get off(下来)，get on well with(与……相处融洽)，get married(结婚)，get together(相聚)
(6)give up(放弃)，give…a hand(给与……帮助)，give a concert(开音乐会)
(7)go back(回去)，go on(继续)，go home(回家)，go to bed(睡觉)，go over(过
一遍；仔细检查)，go out(外出；到外面)，go wrong(走错路)，go on doing(继续做某事)，go shopping(买东西)，go boating(去划船), go fishing(去钓鱼)，go hiking(去徒步旅行)，go skating(去滑冰)，go straight along(沿着……一直往前走)
(8)have a look(看一看), have a seat（坐下）, have supper（吃晚餐）, have a rest
（休息）, have sports（进行体育活动）, have a cold（感冒）, have a cough（咳嗽）, have a good time（过得愉快）, have a headache（头痛），have a
try(尝试；努力)
(9)look for(寻找)，look out(留神; 注意)，look over(仔细检查)，look up(向上
看；抬头看)，look after(照顾; 照看)，look at(看； 观看)，look like(看起来像)，look the same(看起来像)，
(10)make friends(交朋友)，make phone calls(打电话)，make money(赚钱)，
make the bed(整理床铺)，make a noise(吵闹)，make a face(做鬼脸)，make one’s way to(往……走去)，make room for(给……腾出地方)，make a decision(做出决定)，make a mistake(犯错误)，make up one’s mind(下决心)
(11)put on(上演；穿上；戴上)，put up(挂起；举起)，put down(把某物放
来)，put away(把某物收起来), put off(推迟)
(12)take off(脱掉衣服)，take photos(照相)，take time(花费时间)，take out(
出)，take a seat(坐下)，take an active part in(积极参加)，take care of(照顾；照料；注意)，take exercise(做运动)，take one’s place(坐某人的位置；代替某人的职务)，take turn(轮流)
(13)talk about(谈话；交谈)，talk with(和……交谈)
(14)turn on(打开电灯，收音机，煤气，自来水等)，turn off(关上电灯，收机，
煤气，自来水等)，turn down(关小；调低)，turn…over(把…..翻过来)
(15)think of(认为；想起)，think about(考虑)
6. 主谓一致
谓语受主语支配，须和主语在人称和数上保持一致，这叫做主谓一致。主谓一致一般遵循三条原则：语法一致原则，意义一致原则和就近一致原则。
1. 语法一致的原则
（1）以单数名词或代词，动词不定式短语作主语时，谓语动词要用单数;主语为复数时，谓语用复数，例如：
He goes to school early every morning.
The children are playing outside.
To work hard is necessary for a student.
（2）由and或both……and连接的并列成分作主语时，谓语动词用复数。
例如：
Both he and I are right.
Mr Black and Mrs Black have a son called Tom.
但并列主语如果指的是同一人，同一事物或同一概念，谓语动词用单数。例如：
His teacher and friend is a beautiful girl.
The poet and writer has come.
（3）由and连接的并列单数主语之前如果分别由each, every修饰时，其谓语动词要用单数形式。例如：
In our country every boy and every girl has the right to receive education.
Each man and each woman is asked to help.
（4）主语是单数时，尽管后面跟有 but ,except, besides, with 等介词短语，谓语动词仍用单数。例如：
The teacher with his students is going to visit the museum.
Nobody but two boys was late for class.
Bread and butter is a daily food in the west.
（5） 一些只有复数形式的名词，如people, police, cattle, clothes等作主语时，谓语动词要用复数。例如：
A lot of people are dancing outside.
The police are looking for lost boy.
（6）由each, some, any, no, every 构成的复合代词作主语时，谓语动词都用单数。例如：
Is everybody ready
Somebody is using the phone.
（7）有两部分构成的物体的名词，如glasses, shoes, trousers, chopsticks, scissors 等作主语时，谓语动词用复数。例如：
Where are my shoes I can’t find them.
Your trousers are dirty. You’d better change them.
如果这类名词前用了a pair of等，则往往用作单数，谓语动词的单复数形式往往取决于pair的单复数形式。例如：
Here are some new pairs of shoes.
My new pair of socks is on the bed.
2. 意义一致的原则
（1）表时间、距离、价格、度量衡等的名词作主语时，谓语动词通常用单数。例如：
Twenty years is not a long time.
Ten dollars is too dear.
（2）有些集合名词，如family, team等作主语时，如作为一个整体看待，谓语动词用单数；如指其中每个成员，则用复数。例如：
My family is big one.
My family are watching TV.
（3）不定代词由all, most, more, some, any, none作主语时，也要依这些代词表示的意义来决定谓语动词的单复数形式。如果代词代表复数可数名词，谓语动词用复数；如果代词代表单数可数名词或不可数名词，谓语动词用单数。例如：
All of the work has been finished.
All of the people have gone.
（4）疑问代词作主语时，其谓语动词也有两种情况：主语表示复数意义，谓语动词用复数；主语表示单数意义，则谓语动词用单数。例如：
Who is your brother
Who are League members
（5）“分数或百分数+of+名词”构成的词组作主语时，其谓语动词要以of后面的名词而定。名词是复数，谓语动词用复数：名词是单数，谓语动词用单数。例如：
It is said that 35 per cent of the doctors are women.
Three –fourths of the surface of the earth is sea.
（6）half, the rest等表示不定数量的名词作主语时，如果所指为复数意义，动词用复数；如果所指为单数意义，动词用单数。例如：
I have read a large part of the book, the rest is more difficult.
Only ten students attended the class because all the rest were off sick.
（7）由what 引导地主于从句作主语时，通常谓语动词用单数形式。但如果所指内容为复数意义时，谓语动词用复数形式。例如：
What she said is correct.
What she left me are a few old books.
（8）凡是以“定冠词+形容词（或分词）”作主语，往往根据意义一致的原则决定谓语动词的单复数形式。如果这种主语指的是一类人，谓语动词用复数；如果指的是一个人或抽象概念，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：
The sick have been cured and the lost have been found.
The dead is a famous person.
3. 邻近一致的原则
（1）由连词or, either……or, neither……nor, not only…but also,等连接的并列主语，如果一个是单数，一个是复数，则谓语动词按就近一致原则，与最靠近它的主语一致。例如：
Either you or I am right.
Neither the children nor the teacher knows anything about it.
（2）在“There be” 句型中，谓语动词和靠近的主语一致。
　　 There are two apples and one egg in it.
　　（3）as well as 和名词连用时，谓语动词和第一个名词相一致。
　　 He as well as I is responsible for it.
　　 不但是我，他对这件事也有责任。
（4）以here开头的句子，其谓语动词和靠近的主语一致。
Here is a letter and some books for you.
【能力提升】
1. They said the eighteenth and last lesson _______ quite easy.
A. is B. was C. are D. were
2. ---When are you going to Kumming for your holidays
---I haven’t decided. ______ this Sunday ______ next Sunday is OK.
A. Both; and B. Either; or C. Neither; nor D. Not only; but also
3. ______ Helen ______ Joan speaks beautiful Chinese after they came to China.
A. Neither; nor B. Not only; but also C. Both; and D. A and B
4. _______ of them has his own opinion.
A. Both B. Some C. Every D. Each
5. Are there any _______ on the farm
A. horse B. duck C. chicken D. sheep
6. My shirt _____ white and my trousers _____ blue.
A. are; are B. are; is
C. is; is D. is; are
7. ------Two months _______ quite a long time.
------Yes. I’m afraid that he will miss a lot of lessons.
A. is B. are C. was D. were
8. The old man has two children but _____ of them lives with him.
A. both B. none C. neither D. all
9. Our knowledge of computer _____ growing all the time.
A. be B. is C. are D. were
10. Everyone except Tom and John _____ there when the meeting began.
A. is B. was C. are D. were
11. Most of the houses _______ this year.
A. has built B. have built
C. has been built D. have been built
12. I think maths _____ very difficult to learn.
A. is B. are C. has D. have
13. A large number of students _____ to work in Xingjiang.
A. have gone B. has gone C. goes D. is going
14. The number of the students in the class ______ small.
A. are B. is C. have D. were
15. There _____ a lot of good news in today’s newspaper.
A. is B. are C. was D. were
【练习答案】
1. B 2.B 3.D 4.D 5.D 6.D 7.A 8.C 9.B 10.B11.D 12.A 13.A 14.B 15.A
第四节 数词、冠词
一. 冠词的用法
冠词是虚词，放在名词之前，用来说明名词指的人或事物。冠词有两种。
A(an)叫不定冠词，the叫定冠词。A用在辅音之前，an用在元音之前。
1. 不定冠词的用法
(1) a和an均用在单数名词之前，表示某一类人或事物。例如：
John is a student.
Mary is an English teacher.
(2) 指某一类人或事物中的任何一个。例如:
A steel worker makes steel.
Pass me an apple, please.
(3) 指某人或某物，但不具体说明何人或和物。例如：
A student wants to see you.
A girl is waiting for you outside.
(4) 表示“每一”的意思，相当于every。例如：
Take the medicine three times a day.
They go to see their parents once a week.
(5)用于某些习惯用语中
a lot of 许多 a number of 许多 a little 有点儿 as a result 因此 as a rule 通常 have a rest 休息 have a cold 患感冒 have a good time 过得开心 in a hurry 匆忙 in a word 总之 make a living 谋生
2. 定冠词用法
(1) 特指某（些）人或某（些）事物。例如：
The book on the desk is an English dictionary.
Beijing is the capital of China.
(2) 指说话人和听话人都熟悉的人或事物。例如：
Open the door, please.
Jack is in the library.
(3) 上文提到过的人或事物。例如：
Yesterday John’s father bought him a new bike. The bike cost him 200 yuan.
(4) 表示世界上独一无二的事物。例如：
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
(5) 用在序数词和形容词最高级之前。例如：
Shanghai is the biggest city in China.
January is the first month of the year.
(6) 用在某些形容词之前，表示某一类人或事物。例如：
The nurse is kind to the sick.
We should take good care of the old.
(7) 用在某些专有名词之前和某些习惯用语中。例如：
the Great Wall, the Summer palace, in the morning, in the open air等。
(8) 用在姓氏复数之前，表示“某某一家人”，“某某夫妇”。例如：
the Browns, the whites等。
(9)用在某些习惯用语中
at the same time 同时 by the way 顺便问一句 go to the cinema 看电影 in the end 最后 in the past 在过去 in the morning 在上午 on the other hand 另一方面 in the dark 在黑暗中，不知道
3. 不用冠词的情况
(1) 某些专有名词，抽象名词和物质名词前一般不用冠词。例如：
China, Canada, Japanese, glass, water, love等。
(2) 名词前已有作定语用的this, that, my, your, whose, some, any, no, each, every等代词时，不用冠词。例如：
That is my cap.
I have some questions.
Go down this street.
(3) 复数名词表示一类人或事物时，不用冠词。
They are workers.
We are students.
(4) 称呼语前不用冠词，表示头衔和职务的名词前也不加冠词。例如：
I don’t feel well today, Mother.
Bush was made president of the U.S.
(5) 三餐饭的名称前，球类活动，学科和节日名词前，常不用冠词。例如：
I have lunch at home.
He often plays football after class.
We have English and maths every day.
(6) 在某些固定词组里，名词之前常不用冠词。例如：
By air, at night, at home, go to bed, go to school, on foot, from morning till night 等。
巩固练习
★冠词用法·不定冠词
1.Give me _____ ________. 给我一个苹果。
______ Mr. Brown wishes to see you. 一位叫布朗的先生想见你。
★定冠词
1. The manager you want to see was here just now. 你要见的那位经理刚刚还在这里。（表____）
The computer is a great invention. 计算机是一项伟大的发明。（表_____）
The young should respect the old. 年轻人应该尊敬老年人。（表_____）
能力提升
1. My neighbor asked me to go for______ walk, but I don't think I've got ______energy.
A. a: 不填 B. the; the C. 不填; the D. a; the
2. It’s not ___ good idea to drive for four hours without ___ break.
A. a ; a B. the ; a C. the ; the D. a ; the
3. I ate sandwich while I was waiting for 20:08 train.
A. the, a B. the, the C. a, the D. a, a
4. ______ apple fell from the tree and hit him on ______ head.
A. An; the B. The; the C. An; 不填 D. The; 不填
5. This area experienced________ heaviest rainfall in _________month of May.
A 不填; a B a ; the C the ; the D the ; a
6. What ____ pity that you couldn’t be there to receive____ prize! A．a；a B．the；a C．a；the D．the；the7. Let’s go to cinema-that’ll take your mind off the problem for while.
A. the; the B. the; a C. a; the D. a ; a
二. 数词的用法
数词分基数词和序数词。基数词表示数目，序数词表示顺序。
1. 基数词的用法
(1) 基数词在句中主要用作主语、宾语、定语、表语、同位语，例如：
　　 Thirty of them are Party members.（主语）
　　 --- How many would you like？
　　 --- Three ，please．（作宾语）
　　 The nine boys are from Tianjing.（定语）
　　 Six plus four is ten.（表语）
　　 We four will go with you.（同位语）
(2) 表示一个具体数字时，hundred, thousand, million一律不用复数；在表示一个不确定数字时则用复数。例如：
Our country has a population of 1,300 million people.
There are three thousand students in our school.
After the war, thousands of people became homeless.
Maize is the most important food crop for millions of people in the world.
　　 They arrived in twos and threes．
　 (3) 表示“……十”的数词的复数形式可用来表示人的岁数或年代，例如：
　　 He is in his early thirties．
　　 He died still in his forties．
　　 This took place in the1930s．
(4) 表示时刻用基数词。例如：
We get up at six.
The workers begin work at eight.
(5) 表示“几点过几分”，用介词past,但须在半小时以内。例如：
ten past ten,
a quarter past nine,
half past twelve
(6) 表示“几点差几分”用介词to, 但分数须在半小时以上。例如：
twenty to nine,
five to eight,
a quarter to ten
(7) 表示“几点几分”还可直接用基数词。例如：
seven fifteen,
eleven thirty,
nine twenty
2. 序数词的用法
　 （1）序数词主要用作定语，前面要加定冠词，例如：
　　 The first truck is carrying a foot baskets．
　　 John lives on the fifteenth floor．
　 （2）序数词有时前面可加不定冠词来表示“再一”，“又一”这样的意思，例如：
　　 We'll have to do it a second time．
Shall I ask him a third time？
　　 When I sat down，a fourth man rose to speak．
（3）由几个序数词和基数词在拼写时不对应，很容易写错，应特别注意。它们是：one---first, two---second, three---third, five---fifth, eight---eighth, nine---ninth, twelve---twelfth。
（4）表示年，月，日时， 年用基数词表示，日用序数词表示。例如：
1949年十月一日读作: October (the) first, nineteen sixty
2004年九月十日读作：September (the) tenth, two thousand and four
（5）表示分数时，分子用基数词表示，分母用序数词表示。分子大于1时，分母加-s。例如：
three fourths,
one second,
two fifths
（6）序数词有时用缩写形式：
first→1st second→2nd
third→3rd fourth→4th
twenty-second→22nd
【能力提升】
1. This morning I had ________ egg and a bottle of milk for my breakfast.
A. an B. a C. the D./
2. ---What’s the matter with you
---I caught ________ bad cold and had to stay in ________.
A. a;/ B. a; the C. a; a D. the; the
3. ---Have you seen _______ pen I left it here this morning.
---Is it ________ black one I think I saw it somewhere.
A. a; the B. the; the C. the; a D. a; a
4. _______ sun is shining brightly.
A. A B. An C. The D. /
5. There is _______ “h” in the word hour.
A. a B. the C. an D./
6. Did you enjoy your stay in Xian
Yes. I had _______ wonderful time.
A. a B. an C. the D. /
7. ______ sun is bigger than _______ earth.
A. A; the B. A; an C. The; an D. The; the
8. There is _______ apple and some pears on the table.
A. the B./ C. a D. an
9. David has _______ cat. It’s very nice.
A. a B. an C. the D./
10. I’m reading _______ novel. It is _______ interesting story.
A. a; an B. a; a C. the; the D. /; an
11. It is said that SARS has killed more than ________ people worldwide.
A. three hundreds B. three hundreds’
C. three hundred’s D. three hundred
12. ---How many workers are there in your factory
---There are two __________.
A. hundreds B. hundred C. hundred of D. hundreds of
13. ---Which is the smallest number of the four
---_______________.
A. Two-thirds B. A half C. A quarter D. Three-fourths
14. ---What do you think of a war, Li Ming
---I’ve no idea. But it’s a fact that _______ people had to leave their hometown during the War on Iraq.
A. three thousands B. thousand of
C. thousands of D. several thousands
15. We all think that the _______ century will bring us more hopes.
A. twenty-first B. twentieth-first
C. twenty-one D. twentieth-one
16. ---Can you write the number eighty-five thousand, six hundred and twenty-six
---Yes, it is __________.
A. 856620 B. 85626 C. 58662 D. 58626
17. When was the PRC founded It was founded on _________.
A. July 1, 1921 B. October 1, 1949
C. August 1, 1927 D. May 1, 1922
18. I was 8 years old when my father was 31. This year my father is twice my age. How old am I
A. 21 B. 22 C. 23 D. 24
19. _______ Chinese are looking for ways to learn English well before Beijing 2008 Olympics.
A. Thousand B. Thousands C. Thousand of D. Thousands of
20. Both of the two rulers are broken. I want to buy a _______one.
A. three B. third C. forth D. /
【练习答案】
1.A 2.A 3.D 4.C 5.C 6.A 7.D 8.D 9.A 10.A11.D 12.B 13.C 14.C 15.A 16.B 17.B 18.C 19.D 20.B
第五节 代词
代词是代替名词、形容词和数词的词。按其意义、特征及其在句中的作用分为：人称代词、物主代词、指示代词、反身代词、相互代词、疑问代词、不定代词和关系代词等。
一、 人称代词
1.人称代词的人称、数和格，如下表所示。
2.人称代词有主格和宾格之分。通常主格作主语，宾格作宾语。如：
　 I like table tennis. （作主语）
Do you know him （作宾语）
3.人称代词还可作表语。作表语时用宾格。如：
---Whos is knocking at the door
---It’s me.
4.人称代词在than之后与其他人或事物进行比较时，用主格和宾格都可以。如：
He is older than me.
He is older than I am.
二、物主代词
　1.表示所有关系的代词叫物主代词。物主代词分形容词性物主代词和名词性物主代词，如下表所示。
2. 形容词性物主代词的作用相当于形容词，可在句中作定语。例如：
　 Our teacher is coming to see us.
　 This is her pencil-box.
　3. 名词性物主代词的作用相当于名词，在句中可用作主语、宾语和表语。
　　 Our school is here, and theirs is there.（作主语）
　 --- Is this English-book yours （作表语）
　 --- No. Mine is in my bag.
　 I've already finished my homework. Have you finished yours （作宾语）
三、指示代词
　 指示代词包括：this，that，these，those。
1. this和these一般用来指在时间或空间上较近的事物或人，that和those
则指时间和空间上较远的事物或人，例如：
　 This is a pen and that is a pencil．
　 We are busy these days．
　 In those days the workers had a hard time．
2. 有时that和those指前面讲到过的事物，this 和these则是指下面将要讲
到的事物，例如：
I had a cold. That's why I didn't come.
What I want to say is this ; pronunciation is very important in learning English．
3. 有时为了避免重复提到的名词，常可用that或those代替，例如：
　 Television sets made in Beijing are just as good as those made in Shanghai．
4. this 在电话用语中代表自己，that 则代表对方。例如：
Hello! This is Mary. Is that Jack speaking
四、反身代词
　 英语中用来表示“我自己”，“你自己”，“他自己”，“我们自己”，“你们自己”等意义的代词称为反身代词，也有人称之为自身代名词，其形式如表所示。
反身代词可以在句中作宾语，表语，同位语。
　 1. 作宾语，表示动作的承受者就是动作的发出者，主语和宾语指同一个人
或一些人。
　 He called himself a writer．
　 Would you please express yourself in English 　
2. 作表语。
　 It doesn't matter．I'll be myself soon．
　 The girl in the news is myself．
　 3. 作主语或宾语的同位语，表示亲自或本人。
　 I myself washed the clothes．（=I washed the clothes myself.）（作主语同位语）
You should ask the teacher himself．（作宾语同位语）
五、 不定代词
　 不是指明代替任何特定名词的代词叫做不定代词，在句中可作主语、表
语、宾语和定语。现将几个常用的不定代词举例说明如下：
1. some与any的区别
1）some多用于肯定句，表示“一些，几个”作形容词时，后面可以接①不可数名词+单数动词；②可数名词+复数动词。
Look! Some of the students are cleaning the library.
Some rice in the bag has been sold out.
2）any多用于疑问句、条件句和否定句中，表示“一些，任何”用作形容词时，后面可以接①不可数名词+单数动词；②可数名词+复数动词。
If you have any questions, please ask me.
There isn't any orange in the bottle.
Have you got any tea
3）any和some也可以作代词用，表示“一些”。any多用于疑问句或否定句中，some多用于肯定句中。
How many people can you see in the picture
I can't see any.
If you have no money, I'll lend you some.
【注意】与some, any结合的词如something, somebody, someone, anything, anyone, anybody在肯定句、否定句、疑问句、条件句中的用法，大致和some, any的用法相同。
2. few, a few, little, a little在用法上的区别
1）用作形容词：
含义用法 表示肯定 表示否定
用于可数名词 a few虽少，但有几个 few不多，几乎没有
用于不可数名词 a little，虽少，但有一点 little不多，没有什么
I'm going to buy a few apples.
He can speak only a little Chinese.
There is only a little milk in the glass.
He has few friends.
They had little money with them.
2）a little和little也可以用作副词，a little表示“有点，稍微”，little表示“很少”。
I'm a little hungry. (修饰形容词hungry)
Let him sleep a little. (修饰动词sleep)
Mary, go a little faster, please. (修饰副词比较级)
She slept very little last night.
3. other, the other, another, others, the others的区别。
用 法 代名词 形容词
单数 复数 单数 复数
不定 another另一个 others别人，其他人 another (boy)另一个（男孩） other (boys)其他男孩
特定 the other另一个 the others其余那些人、物 the other (boy)另一个男孩 the other (boys)其余那些男孩
other可以作形容词用，后面可以跟单数或复数名词，意思是“其他的、别的”。
Where are his other books
I haven't any other books except this one.
2）other也可以用作代词，与冠词the连用构成“the other”，表示两个人或物中的“另一个”。常与one搭配构成“one ..., the other ...”句型。
He has two brothers. One is 10 years old , the other is 5 years old.
She held a ruler in one hand and an exercise-book in the other.
3）other作代词用时，可以有复数“others”，泛指“另外的人或物”。常与some搭配构成“some ...., others ...”句型。
Some went to the cinema, others went swimming.
This coat is too large. Show me some others, please.
4）“the others”表示特指某范围内的“其他的人或物”。
We got home by 4 o'clock, but the others didn't get back until 8 o'clock.
In our class only Tom is English, the others are Chinese.
5）another可以作形容词用，修饰后面的名词，意为“另一个”，还可以跟代词one.
You can see another ship in the sea, can't you
Mary doesn't want to buy this skirt. Would you please show her another one
6）another也可以作代词用，表示“另一个”。
I'm still hungry after I've had this cake. Please give me another.
4. every与each的区别。
each every
1)可单独使用 1)不可单独使用
2)可做代名词、形容词 2)仅作形容词
3)着重“个别” 3)着重“全体”，毫无例外
4)用于两者或两者以上中的每一个人或物 4)用于三者或三者以上每一个人或物
The teacher gave a toy to each child.
Each ball has a different colour.
当我们说each child, each student或each teacher时，我们想到的是一个人的情况。而当我们说every child和every student时，我们想到的是全体的情况，every的意思与all接近，表示他们都如此。
Every student loves the English teacher. = All students love the English teacher.
Every child likes playing. = All children like playing.
5. all和both的用法。
1）all指三者以上，或不可数的东西。谓语动词既可以用单数，也可以用作复数。在句中作主语、表语、宾语、同位语和定语。
All of us like Mr Pope. 我们都喜欢Pope先生。（作主语）
= We all like Mr Pope. (作同位语)
All the water has been used up. (作主语)
That's all for today. (作表语)
Why not eat all (of) the fish (作宾语)
All the leaders are here. (作定语)
2）both作代词。
①与其他名词或代词并列出现，表示“两个都”。
Lucy and Lily both agree with us.
They both passed on their sticks at the same time.
How are your parents They're both fine.
②与“of +代词（或名词）”连用，表示“两者都”。
Both of them came to see Mary.
Both of the books are very interesting.
③单独使用，表示“两者（都）”。
Michael has two sons. Both are clever.
I don't know which book is the better, I shall read both.
3）both用作形容词，放在名词之前，修饰该名词，表示“两者都”。
Both his younger sisters are our classmates.
There are tall trees on both sides of the street.
六、相互代词
表示相互关系的代词叫做相互代词。相互代词有each other 和one another两种形 式。在当代英语中，each other和one another没有什么区别。相互代词可在句中作宾语，定语。作定语用时，相互代词用所有格形式。
　 We should learn from each other / one another. （作宾语）
　 Do you often write to each other / one another （作宾语）
　 We often borrow each other's / one another's books. （作定语）
　 The students corrected each other's / one another's mistakes in their homework. （作定语）
七、 疑问代词
疑问代词有who，whom，whose，what和which等。疑问代词用于特殊疑
问句中，一般都放在句首，并在句子中作为某一句子成分。例如：
Who is going to come here tomorrow （作主语）
What is that (作表语)
Whose umbrella is this (作定语)
Whom are you waiting for (作宾语)
八.关系代词
关系代词是一种引导从句并起连接主句和从句作用的代词。关系代词有 who, whose, whom, that, which. 它们在句中可用作主语,表语,宾语,定语. 在主句中,它们还代表着从句所修饰的那个名词或代词。例如：
I hate people who talk much but do little.
I’m looking at the photograph which you sent me with your letter.
With the money that he had saved, he went on with his studies.
Do you know the lady who is interviewing our headmaster
巩固练习
★代词用法·人称代词
主格 ___ ___ ___ ___ __ ___ ___ ___ 做主语
宾格 ___ ___ ___ ___ __ ___ ___ ___ 做动词、介词的宾语
意义 我 你 他 她 它 我们 你们 他们
★物主代词
形容词性 ___ ____ ___ ___ ___ ____ ____ ____
名词性 ___ ____ ___ ___ ___ ____ ____ ____
意义 我的 你的 他的 她的 它的 我们的 你们的 他们的
★反身代词
第一人称 第二人称 第三人称
单数 ________ ________ ______ / ______ /______
复数 ________ ________ __________
反身代词主要用作宾语(动词宾语和介词宾语)和同位语。如：
All of them enjoyed __________. 所有的人都玩得很好。
Help _________ to some fish. 请自己动手吃点鱼吧。
You don’t seem yourself today. 你今天___________________。
★不定代词
1. some 和any
I must get ______ fruit in the market.
Do you have _______ books for children
Would you like ______ bananas
You can read ______ of the books. 你可以看这些书中的任何一本。
2. all /both/ either/ neither/none
Copper and silver are _____ metals. 铜和银都是金属。
Not ______ women like the word Ms. 并非所有的女性都喜欢Ms这个词。
_________ of the telephones are/is working. 所有的电话都坏了。
______ of us enjoy getting up early. 我们俩谁也不喜欢早起。
There are trees on ______ side (=on both sides). 两边都有树。
3. each 和every
The students ________ have a dictionary. 学生每人有一本字典。
He comes home ________ two weeks. 他每隔两周回家一次。
4. other, the other, others, the others
Don’t cut in when ________ are talking. 别人说话时别插话。
Only Jim was there. ____________had left. 只有吉姆在那儿，其余的人都离开了。
There are ________ways to do this exercise. 做这个练习还可用别的方法。
It is hard to tell the twin brothers one from ___________. 这对孪生兄弟很难辨认。
5. much 和many
His name is familiar to ______ people. 他的名字许多人熟悉。
The children have too _______ homework to do. 孩子们家庭作业太多。
6. few 和 a few ; little 和a little
_________ apples remained on the tree. 树上没什么苹果了。
_________ apples remained on the tree. 树上还剩有几个苹果。
I have ________ spare time. 我很少有空余时间。
I have ________ spare time. 我有一点点空余时间。
7. 复合不定代词somebody, anybody, everybody, nobody, someone, anyone, everyone, no one, something, anything, everything, nothing
(1)复合代词后习惯上不接表示范围的of 短语，但分开写的any one, every one 等却可以接 of 短语。如：__________ of us agrees to stay. 我们每个人都同意留下。
(2)修饰复合不定代词的形容词必须置于其后。如：
判断对错：发生什么特别的事情了吗
Has special anything happened （ ）
Has anything special happened （ ）
★it的特殊用法
1. There is a knock on the door. _______ must be the postman. 有人在敲门，一定是邮递员。
2. _______________to go there now. 现在去那儿已经太迟了。
_____________all day yesterday. 昨天下了一天第一章 如何做好初、高中英语学习的衔接
一、为什么要做好初高中衔接？
初中和高中英语学习出现了很大的的差异：
●教材跨度大。与初中简单的基础英语相比， 高中英语容量大， 要求高， 节奏快， 这就致使很多学生一时难以适应。其实从高中英语的设置和心理学上分析，我们不难找到答案．初中生升到高中，都有一种兴奋的心情。但在看到越来越多的新单词，越来越长的课文后；在听到越来越快的听力语速后；在碰到越来越复杂试题后，在老师的全英文授课的＂熏陶＂下，他们中的一些人不免会产生畏难的情绪，有的人就觉得自己不是学英语的料， 干脆就不学了。 其实这部分学生不是不想学， 而是觉得高中的英语教材与课堂与初中太不一样了， 就错误的认为自己没得救了， 这就好比吃惯了中餐的人会觉得西餐很难吃， 而导致不愿意吃一样。
●初高中英语教法有所不同。初中时候，学生习惯于老师用汉语解释英文,不习惯高中老师全英语教学,教师课堂常用语掌握太少;初中生习惯于老师对课文逐句翻译, 不习惯对课文篇章理解和深层理解;初中生习惯于老师教读生词，不习惯自己拼读，缺乏一定的音标知识；初中生习惯于听老师简单重复操练, 不重视思维能力的培养和语言的综合运用能力．
●考试内容不一样。
进入高中的英语学习后，语言知识体系和对语言运用能力的要求都和初中是两个样子。高中的教学内容是在初中阶段上的一个提升，是基础阶段的继续和完善。在这个知识衔接的过程中，对学生的学习习惯和学习能力，自身心态的调整都有了很大的要求。如何做好初、高中英语的过渡，也就成为进入高中英语学习的第一个门槛。
二、如何做好初、高中衔接？
●做好英语学习习惯的衔接。
　　1、养成使用工具书的习惯。很少使用工具书，在遇到生字词都是用电子词典简单的记忆单词拼写，或干脆将生词放在一旁不管，这就会造成知识缺口大扩大。选择一本好的词典作自己在词汇学习上的良师益友，遇到词汇方面的疑问会主动的寻求解答。同时再有一本好的英语语法工具书，养成有语法障碍就立刻翻阅的习惯，在不断的实践中有意识地较准确的运用语法知识，正确地理解语言和运用语言。
　　2、养成“两看一做”的习惯。初中英语教师对预习没有严格的要求，初中生对预习采取可有可无的态度。但高中英语对学生的预习就不能只是泛泛而提，而要把它当作英语学习的一个重要环节，学生每天回家后要做到“两看一做”，即将课堂上的知识点进行复习和再记忆，然后完成作业和做相应的习题来巩固新知识，最后一定要做到认真的预习，将老师第二天要讲授的东西先有个认识和自己的理解，对出现的生词和短语采取主动认知，运用工具书知道意思，不理解的句子做批注以便在老师讲解时更好的吸收。一个单元一复习；一个月，再总结复习一遍。这样的反复认知和记忆，才可以牢记和运用知识。
　　3、养成做笔记和整理的习惯。在初中很多学生都是只带耳朵听课，懒于动笔。不要说记笔记，连在书上也很少做注解。这样的课堂学习习惯还可以应付初中的考试。到了高中后，这就是个坏习惯。在考试复习时就会发现两手空空，不知该从何下手复习。因此，要准备一个笔记本，专门用来记录老师上课时所讲授的知识点、句型、例句，还要将重点内容用红笔勾出或画出。俗话说得好：好记性不如烂笔头这样，有了平时的课堂笔记积累，无论是期末考试时的复习，还是高三时的归纳总结，都可以做到一目了然、清晰明确。
4、阅读与摘抄的习惯。初中英语一般还只限于课本，到了高中，英语阅读能力成为一个重点培养目标。多阅读适合自己水平和兴趣的英语读物，尤其是原汁原味的地道的。
5、背诵英语课文和范文的习惯。英语表达能力差，要提高书面表达能力一个行之有效的办法就是多背诵，学习别人的好词好句，久而久之，表达能力也会随之提高。所以要培养背诵英语课文和范文的习惯。
6、学法探讨的习惯。学习策略是提高学习效率和培养自主学习能力的保证。每个学生都有自己的优势和独特的学习策略，最佳学习策略应是一整套立足个性、突出特色和强调实效的学习方法。每个学生都应不断改进和寻找适合自己的学习策略，结合教材认真总结和探讨。
●做好心理上的衔接。
相对于初中英语，高中英语一下子难度加大，容量增加。相当一部分学生不适应。再者，进入高中的学生往往都是原先初中成绩较好的学生，“高手”群体中总有一些学生会掉在班级的后面。有些学生这时候以为自己英语学不来了，就想放弃或懈怠它。这个时候，每位学生都应该对自己有个辩证的分析，从客观主观上，对自身及其他同学上，剖析自己的长处短处，剖析自己初中学习英语的特点，发扬优点，摒弃不足。与老师沟通，与同学交流。千万不要因为暂时的不适应放弃至关重要的英语。心理上的衔接很重要。
●明确高中英语学习要求
　　1、词汇的学习。词汇是构成语言的三大要素之一，词汇是语音和语法的载体。词汇的学习很重要。初中教学淡化了音标，学生在认读和拼写单词上多是死记硬背，很容易遗忘或只是单纯的记忆单词拼写。在高中我们要求学生可以根据音标和读音规则认读和拼写单词。在词汇实际使用方面除了单词的拼写还要求知道词性、词的派生、合成以及单词的扩展。把初中阶段“只作理解”的一些词汇上升到高中阶段的“熟练掌握”。
　　2、基础语法的深层次运用。很多的英语语法在初中阶段都有涉及，但只是简单层面的要求和应用，到了高中那些知识就显得不够用了。高中英语在考点上不再像初中那样将解题需要的已知语法条件全部给出，而是在每题中只给出关键的一个条件，要求你凭借对语法的深层理解找到其他的条件来做题。所以在语法学习上不可以再停留在背好“现三单”，不规则动词表，找准时间状语就可以做题上，我们需要的是将相关语法融会贯通的能力。这就要求在学习上更多的侧重归纳总结，建立起新旧知识之间的联系，使其系统化，条理化；反复操练，及时复习，使“短时记忆”变为“长时记忆”。通过任务型学习来巩固语法，可以是填空练习，英汉互译，造句练习，做游戏等活动。
　　3、阅读理解能力的要求。初中英语教学重在“听说领先，读写跟上”，而高中英语教学对读理解能力和写作的能力有了更高的要求。高中英语教学除要求有扎实的基础知识外，更重要的是培养学生自主学习的能力，探索性研究学习的能力。到了高中阶段，英语阅读能力被作为一个侧重培养目标，在考试中比重不小。因为阅读的题材变得多样化，词汇量加大，对文章的综合理解能力要求高，学生在阅读时困难度也就相应的增加了。学生应该多阅读与他们水平较为适应的英语书籍，此外寻求教师对阅读技能、技巧的讲解。在平时练习中做到限时阅读，快速阅读，精读的综合训练。
●清楚高中英语测试的要求
　　高中英语测试中，无论是单项选择、完型填空、阅读理解，阅读表达等各个题型中，都存在着一定难度且较灵活的题目。不能简单的认为从语法方面入手就可以奏效，在完型填空，阅读理解上更要从上下文意思入手，结合语法，句法和词法，并运用普遍联系的观点分析问题，解决问题。初中英语测试在题量和题型的灵活性上远不及高中英语测试。不少学生延用套初中英语的学习方法和模式，结果事倍功半，成绩每况愈下。到了高中就要知道每做一道题，每看一句话，阅读每一语段都要做到普遍联系，综合理解。
●做好学习“四环节”
1、预习。每天上课前或上课前一天的某个时间，把老师要讲的内容先去看一看，力争运用所学过的知识去理解上课的内容。这也是自学能力的一种培养。预习结果可以自已看懂老师上课要讲的内容；通过预习，也清楚自已哪些地方存在困难，上课就可对症下药地重点去聆听，减轻课堂负担，提高上课效率。
2、上课。通过预习，对上课的内容基本了解或大致掌握。这时，并不是说自己已懂上课可以不听了，自己做自己的事情。相反，更要认真地听老师是如何讲解的，自己有困难的地方如何搞懂，充分调动思维，紧跟老师思路。如此一来，对自己的前期预习也是一个深入的发展。
3、复习。大部分同学每天课后总是先做练习，有时间多才会去复习。这种方法是不正确的。每天做作业、做练习之前先把当天上课内容复习归纳一下。听课时所接收的东西只有经过归纳总结消化才能真正成为自己的。有的同学上课听得懂，但碰到作业、练习或考试又会出错，大部分是因为忽略了这个环节。
4、练习。练习的目的是检查一下学过的知识是否掌握了。练习不是单纯地做几个题目。在做题目时，要多问几个为什么，要多思考，这道题为什么要这样做，用到的知识点是哪一些，是否还可以用另外的方法来解决，下次练习可能会怎样。在做过的练习当中要进行归类。其实练习多了，也无非是那么几种，“换汤不换药”。带有此种习惯和目的去做练习，就会拓宽知识，锻炼能力和发展思维。
同学们，在学习的道路上新旧知识的衔接会一直在我们左右。我们会不断的遇到需要适应的新环境、需要学习的新知识、需要解决的新问题。树立信心是衔接的基础，坚固的基础知识是衔接的关键，好的学法方法和学习习惯是能力衔接的条件。只要不懈地努力，就一定能够把初、高中英语衔接做好，从而大幅度地提高学习质量。
TIPS ON LEARNING
学习好习惯
1、课前预习课后复习不算作业，是一种习惯。
2、上课眼到、口到、手到、心到，积极参与课堂活动。坚决抵制哑巴英语。
3、作业认真按时独立完成。
4 、早读声音一定要响亮。给自己规定任务。
5、及时解决疑难, 当天问题当天解决。
精心准备：
一套作业本（听写本，作业本，作文本）
一本纠错本
一本笔记本
一本字典
一本语法书
一本课标词汇表
每天问自己：
今天我背单词了吗？
今天我完成作业了吗？
今天我预习了吗？
今天我复习了吗？
今天我大声朗读了吗？
今天我阅读了吗？
今天我听录音了吗？
今天我试着用英语交流了吗？第七章 名词从句
名词性从句相当于名词，可分别作主句的主语、表语、宾语和同位语。因此，名词性从句厅分为主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句和同位从句。
（一）引导名词性从句的连接词
1、连接代词：who, whose, whom, what, which。有词义，在从句中担任成分，如主语、表语、宾语、或定语等。
2、连接副词：when, where, why, how。有词义，在从句中担任成分，作状语。
3、连接词：that, whether, if, as if。that 无词义，在从句中不担任成分，有时可省略；if (whether), as if虽有词义，但在从句中不担任成分。
注意：连接代词与连接副词在句中不再是疑问句，因而从句中谓语不用疑问式。连接代词与连接副词在从句充当句子成分，连接词whether 和if（是否），as if（好象）在从句中不充当句子成分，只起连接作用。根据句义，如果连接代词与连接副词，whether、if 和as if都用不上时，才用that作连接词（that本身无任何含义）。
（二）主语从句
1、主语从句在复合句作主语。
e.g. Who will go is not important.
2、用it作形式主语，主语从句放在句末。
e.g. It doesn’t matter so much whether you will come or not.
3、that引导主语从句时，不能省略。
e.g. That he suddenly fell ill last week made us surprised.
（三）表语从句
1、表语从句在复合句中作表语，位于系动词之后。
e.g. The question was who could go there.
2、引导表语从句的连接词that有时可省去。
e.g. My idea is (that) we can get more comrades to help in the work.
（四）同位语从句
同位语从句在句中作某一名词的同位语，一般位于该名词（如：news, fact, idea, suggestion, promise等）之后，说明该名词的具体内容。
e.g. I have no idea when he will be back.
The fact that he had not said anything surprised everybody.
（五）宾语从句
●宾语从句的种类
宾语从句是一种名词性从句，在句中作及物动词的宾语，或介词的宾语，或形容词的宾语。根据引导宾语从句的不同连词，宾语从句可分为三类。
1. 由that引导的宾语从句。that只有语法作用，没有实在的意义，在口语
和非正式文体中可以省略。例如：
He said (that) he wanted to stay at home.
She doesn’t know (that) she is seriously ill.
I am sure (that) he will succeed.
2. 由连接代词who, whom, whose, what, which和连接副词when, where, why, how引导的宾语从句。这些连接代词和连接副词在宾语从句中充当某个成分。例如：
Do you know who (whom) they are waiting foe
He asked whose handwriting was the best.
Can you tell me where the No.3 bus stop is
I don’t know why the train is late.
3. 由if或whether引导的宾语从句。if和whether在句中的意思是“是否”。例如：
I want to know if (whether) he lives there.
He asked me whether (if) I could help him.
★whether与if都可以引导宾语从句，常可互换。但下面情况不能互换。
①宾语从句是否定句时，只用if，不用whether。
e.g. I wonder if it doesn’t rain.
②用if 会引起误解，就要用whether。
e.g. Please let me know whether you want to go.（此句如果把whether改成if，容易当成条件句理解）
③宾语从句中的whether 与or not直接连用，就不能换成if；不直接连用，可换。
e.g. I don’t know whether or not the report is true.
I don’t know whether/ if the report is true or not.
④介词后的宾语从句要用whether引导。whether 可与不定式连用。whether也可引导主语从句、表语从句、同位语从句，还可引导让步状语从句，以上均不能换成if。但引导条件从句时，只能用if，而不能用whether。
e.g. It depends on whether we have enough time.
They don’t know whether to go there.
Please come to see me if you have time.
⑤与不定式连用应选择whether。
e.g. I usually dip into a book before deciding whether to buy it.
●宾语从句的语序
宾语从句的语序应为陈述句的语序。例如：
I hear (that) physics isn’t easy.
I think (that) you will like this school soon.
Can you tell me how I can get to zoo
Please tell me when we’ll have the meeting.
●宾语从句的时态
1. 如果主句的时态是一般现在时，宾语从句该用什么时态就用什么时态。例如：
I don’t think (that) you are right.
Please tell us where he is.
Can you tell me how I can get to the railway station
2. 如果主句的时态是一般过去时，宾语从句只能用相应的过去时态（一般过去时， 过去进行时， 过去将来时，过去完成时）。例如：
He asked what time it was.
He told me that he was preparing for the sports meet.
He asked if you had written to Peter.
He said that he would go back to the U.S. soon.
3. 如果宾语从句所陈述的是客观真理，其时态常用一般现在时。例如：
Our teacher said that January is the first month of the year.
Scientists have proved that the earth turns around the sun.
●it 可以作为形式宾语
it 不仅可以作为形式主语，还可以作为形式宾语而真正的宾语that 从句则放在句尾，特别是在带复合宾语的句子中。例如：
We heard it that she would get married next month. 我听说她下个朋就会结婚了。
●否定的转移
若主句谓语动词为think, consider, suppose, believe, expect, fancy, guess, imagine等，其后的宾语从句若含有否定意义，一般要把否定词转移到主句谓语上，从句谓语用肯定式。例如：
I don’t think this dress fits you well. 我认为这件衣服不适合你穿。
巩固练习
一、判断下列各句哪句含有名词性从句，并指出是什么从句：
1. China is no longer what it used to be.
2. The truth that the earth turn around the sun is known to all.
3. It was snowing when he arrived at the station.
4. How he persuaded the manager to change the plan is interesting to us all.
5. The news that they had won the game soon spread over the whole school.
6. The news that you told me yesterday was really disappointing.
7. That is where Lu Xun used to live.
8. He spoke as if he understood what he was talking about.
9. Do you remember the teacher who taught us English at middle school
10. I wonder why she refused my invitation.
【练习答案】
1、表语从句；2、同位语从句；3、不是；4、主语从句；5、同位语从句；6、不是；7、表语从句；8、宾语从句；9、不是；10、宾语从句
二、单项填空
1. Do you know _______ during the coming summer holiday
A. what will Tom do B. what did Tom do
C. what Tom will do D. what Tom did
2. I want to know_________.
A. what is his name B. what’s his name
C. that his name is D. what his name is
3. Do you know ________ I could pass the exam
A. that B. whether C. what D. which
4. Jim doesn’t understand ____________.
A. which is the way to the museum
B. why his wife always goes shopping
C. what is the way to the museum
D. why does she always go shopping
5. ---Could you tell me ______ she is looking for
A. that B. whose C. who D. which
6. Mr. King didn’t know _______ yesterday evening.
A. when does his son come home
B. when his son comes home
C. when did his son come home
D. when his son came home
7. Could you tell me _______ the bike this morning
A. how does he mend B. how he mends
C. how he mended D. how did he mend
8. ---I’m waiting for the mail. Do you know ________ it will arrive
---Usually it comes by 4: 00.
A. how B. where C. when D. what
9. ---Excuse me, would you please tell me ________
---Certainly. Go straight along here. It’s next to a hospital.
A. how we can get to the post office
B. how can we get to the post office
C. how get to the post office
D. how could we get to the post office
10. ---Can I help you
---Yes. I’d like a ticket to Mount Emei. Can you tell me ______ take to get there
A. how soon will it B. how soon it will
C. how long it will D. how long will it
11. He wanted to know ___________.
A. whether he speaks at the meeting
B. when the meeting would start
C. what he’s going to do at the meeting
D. where would the meeting be held
12. ---Could you tell me _________ the Bamboo Garden
---The day after tomorrow, I think.
A. when will you visit B. when you will visit
C. when would you visit D. when you would visit
13. Would you please tell me _________ next, Mr Wang
A. what should we do B. we should do what
C. what we should do D. should we do what
14. You can’t imagine _________ when they received these nice Christmas presents.
A. how they were excited B. how excited they were
C. how excited were they D. they were how excited
15. I want to know ________ you will come back at 8:00 tomorrow.
A. that B. when C. where D. whether
16. ---Could you tell me ____________
---Sorry, I don’t know. I was not at the meeting.
A. what does he say at the meeting
B. what did he say at the meeting
C. what he says at the meeting
D. what he said at the meeting
17. ---Could you tell me _________ last night
---Er, I was watching Euro 2004 at home.
A. what you were doing B. what were you doing
C. what you are doing D. what are you doing
18. The teacher asked the students __________.
A. if they were interested in dinosaurs
B. when was Albert Einstein born
C. what they will do with the computers
D. how many trees they have planted
19. Every morning the patients are asked if ________ their temperature taken.
A. they had had B. have they had
C. they have had D. had they had
20. It’s up to you to decide _______ you’ll go there, by air or by road.
how B. why C. that D. when
【练习答案】
1.C 2.D 3.B 4.B 5.C 6.D 7.C 8.C 9.A 10.C 11.B 12.B 13.C 14.B 15.D 16.D 17.A 18.A 19.C 20.A
能力提升
1．____he does has nothing to do with me.
A. whatever B. No matter what C. That D. If
2. The manager came over and asked the customer how____
A. did the quarrel came about B .the quarrel had come about
C. had the quarrel come about D. had the quarrel come about
3. Energy is ____makes thing work..
A. what B. something C. anything D. that
4. Information has been put forward ____ more middle school graduates will be admitted into universities.
A. while B. that C. when D. as
5. This is ___the shenzhou V Spaceship landed.
A. there B. in which C. where D. when
6. They have no idea at all____.
A. where he has gone B. where did he go
C. which place has he gone D. where has he gone
7. The doctor did a lot to reduce the patient’s fear ____he would die of the disease.
A. that B. which C. of which D. of that
8. The order came ___the soldiers ____the small village the next morning.
A. that ;had to leave B. that; should leave
C. /; must leave D. when; should leave
9. ___is no possibility ____Bob can win the first prize in the match.
A. There; that B. It; that C. there; whether D. It; whether
10. The question came up at the meeting_____ we had enough money for our research.
A. that B. which C. whether D. if
11. Is _____he said really true
A. that B. what C. why D. whether
12.____the meeting should last two days or three days doesn’t matter.
A. That B. Whether C. If D. Where
13. It worried her a bit _____her hair was turning gray.
A. while B. if C. that D. for
14. _____more countries can use natural energy in the future remains to be seen.
A. Whether B. This C. who D. If
15.____he will go to work in a mountain village surprises all of us.
A. What B. That C. Whether D. If
16. ____you don’t like him is none of my business.
A. What B. That C. Who D. How
17.____all the inventions have in common is ____they have succeeded.
A. What; what B. That; that C. what; that D. That ; what
18. ____appeared to me that he enjoyed the food very much.
A. What B. It C. All that D. That
19. It is widely ______that smoking can cause cancer.
A. believed B. think C. say D. hoped
20. ____caused the accident is still a complete mystery.
A. What B. That C. How D. Where
【练习答案】
1—5 ABABC 6—10 AABAC 11—15 BBCAB 16—20 BCBAA第九章 定语从句
一、定义及相关术语
1．定语从句：修饰某一名词或代词的从句叫定语从句。定语从句一般紧跟在它所修饰的先行词之后。
2．先行词：被定语从句修饰的词叫先行词。
3．关系词：引导定语从句的词叫关系词。
关系词有关系代词和关系副词。关系代词有that, which, who, whom, whose, as等；关系副词有when, where, why等。
关系词通常有下列三个作用：A、引导定语从句；B、代替先行词；C、在定语从句中担当一个成分。例如：
The man who is shaking hands with my father is a policeman. 该句中，who is shaking hands with my father 是定语从句，修饰先行词the man， “who”是引导定语从句的关系词，代替先行词the man，在定语从句中作主语。
4. 限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句
●限制性定语从句
形式上：不用逗号“，”与主句隔开。
意义上：是先行词不可缺少的定语，如删除，主句则失去意义或意思表达不完整。
译法上：译成先行词的定语：“．．．的”
关系词的使用上：A．作宾语时可省略 B．可用that C．可用who 代替whom
●非限制性定语从句
形式上：用逗号“，”与主句隔开。
意义上：只是对先行词的补充说明，如删除，主句仍能表达完整的意思。
译法上：通常译成主句的并列句。
关系词的使用上：A．不可省略 B．不用that C．不可用who 代替whom
限制性定语从句举例：
The teacher told me that Tom was the only person that I could depend on. 老师告诉我说汤姆是我唯一的可以依靠的人。
China is a country which has a long history. 中国是一个历史悠久的国家。
In the street I saw a man who was from Africa. 在街上我看到一个来自非洲的人。
非限制性定语从句举例 ：
His mother, who loves him very much, is strict with him. 他妈妈十分地爱他，对他要求很严格。
China, which was founded in 1949, is becoming more and more powerful. 中国是1949年成立的， 现在正变得越来越强大。
Last summer I visited the People’s Great Hall, in which many important meetings are held every year. 去年夏天，我参观了人民大会堂 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网" \t "_blank )，在那儿每年都要举行许多重要会议。
二、关系代词和关系副词的功用
关系代词和关系副词用来引导定于从句，在先行词和定语从句之间起纽带作用，使二者联系起来。关系代词和关系副词又在定语从句中充当一个成分。关系代词做主语，宾语，定语，关系副词可作状语。
1. 作主语：关系代词在定语从句中作主语时，从句的谓语动词的人称和数须和先行词一致。例如：
I don’t like people who talk much but do little.
The cars which are produced in Hubei Province sell very well.
2. 作宾语：
She is the person that I met at the school gate yesterday.
The book that my grandmother gave me is called “The Great Escape”.
3. 作定语
关系代词whose在定语从句中作定语用。例如：
What’s the name of the young man whose sister is a doctor
The girl whose father is a teacher studies very hard.
4. 作状语
I’ll never forget the day when I first came to Beijing.
This is the house where I was born.
三、各个关系代词和关系副词的具体用法
1. who 指人，在定语从句中作主语。例如：
The person who broke the window must pay for it.
The boy who is wearing the black jacket is very clever.
2. whom指人，在定语从句中作宾语。例如：
Do you know the young man (whom) we met at the gate？
Mr Lee (whom) you want to see has come.
3. whose 指人，在定语从句中作定语。例如：
The girl whose mother is ill is staying at home today.
I know the boy whose father is a professor.
4. which指物，在定语从中作主语或宾语。例如：
A dictionary is a book which gives the meaning of words.
Here is the book (which) the teacher mentioned yesterday.
5. that多指物，有时也指人，在定语从句中作主语或宾语。例如：
I’ve read the newspaper that(which) carries the important news.
Who is the person that is reading the newspaper over there
6. when 指时间，在定语从句中作状语。例如：
I’ll never forget the time when we worked on the farm.
He arrived in Beijing on the day when I left.
7. where 指地点，在定语从句中作状语。例如：
This is the house where we lived last year.
The factory where his father works is in the east of the city.
8. why 指原因，在定语从句中作原因状语。
Please tell me the reason why you missed the plane. 请告诉我你误机的原因。
The reason why he was punished is unknown to us. 他受惩罚的原因我们都不知道。
I don’t know the reason why he looks unhappy today. 我不知道他今天为什么看上去不愉快。
注意：关系副词引导的定语从句经常可以用“介词+关系代词”引导的定语从句来表示。如：
From the years when / in which he was going to primary school in the country he had known what he wanted to be when he grew up. 自从他在农村读小学时，他就已经知道长大后要做什么。
Great changes are taking place in the city where / in which they live. 他们生活的城市正发生巨大的变化。
The reason why / for which he refused the invitation is quite clear. 他为什么拒绝接受邀请的原因是十分明了的。
四、“介词+关系代词”引导的定语从句
关系代词在定语从句中作介词宾语时，从句常常由“介词+关系代词”引出。
The school (which / that) he once studied in is very famous.
The school in which he once studied is very famous. 他曾经就读过的学校很出名。
We’ll go to hear the famous singer (whom / who / that) we have often talked about.
We’ll go to hear the famous singer about whom we have often talked.我们将去听那位我们经常谈论的著名歌唱家演唱。
The manager whose company I work in pays much attention to improving our working conditions.
The manager in whose company I work pays much attention to improving our working conditions.
我工作的那家公司的经理十分注意改善我们的工作条件。
注意：１． 含有介词的短语动词一般不拆开，介词仍放在短语动词的后面。如：look for, look after, take care of 等。
This is the watch (which / that) I am looking for. (正) 这是我正在找的手表。
This is the watch for which I am looking . (误)
The babies (whom / who / that) the nurse is looking after are very healthy. (正) 那个保姆照看的小宝宝们都很健康。
The babies after whom the nurse is looking are very healthy. （误）
２．若介词放在关系代词前，关系代词指人时只可用whom，不可用who, that；关系代词指物时只可用which，不可用that。关系代词是所有格时用whose。
The man with whom you talked just now is my neighbour. (正) 你刚才跟他谈话的那个人是我的邻居。
The man with that / who you talked just now is my neighbour. (误)
The plane in which we flew to Canada was really comfortable. (正)我们去加拿大所乘坐的飞机实在很舒服。
The plane in that we flew to Canada was really comfortable. (误)
３．“介词+关系代词”前还可有some, any, none, all, both, neither, many, most, each, few等代词或者数词。如：
He loves his parents deeply, both of whom are very kind to him. 他深深地爱着他的父母，他们俩待他都很好。
In the basket there are quite many apples, some of which have gone bad. 篮子里有好些苹果，有些已经坏了。
There are forty students in our class in all, most of whom are from big cities.
我们班总共有４０个学生，大多数来自大城市。
Up to now, he has written ten stories, three of which are about country life.
迄今为止，他写了１０部小说，其中３部是关于农村生活的。
五、关系代词与关系副词的选择
用关系代词还是关系副词引导定语从句主要看关系词在定语从句中的作用（即所担当的成分）。试比较：
A. I know a place where we can have a picnic. 我知道一个我们可以野炊的地方。
I know a place which / that is famous for its beautiful natural scenery.
我知道一个以自然景色优美而闻名的地方。
B. I will never forget the days when we spent our holidays together.
我永远忘不了我们一起 度假的日子。
I will never forget the days that / which we spent together.
我永远忘不了我们一起度过的日子。
C. This is the reason why he was dismissed. 这就是他被解雇的原因。
This is the reason that / which he explained to me for his not attending the meeting.
这就是他向我解释的他没有参加会议的原因。
六、具体使用时还要注意下列问题：
●限制性定语从句中只能使用that,不用which 的情况：
1．当先行词是everything, anything, nothing (something 除外), all, none, few, little, some等不定代词时，或当先行词受every, any, all, some, no, little, few, much等代词修饰时。如：
Have you taken down everything that Mr. Li said 李老师讲的你都记下来了吗？
There seems to be nothing that is impossible to him in the world. 对他来说似乎世界上没有什么不可能的事。
All that can be done has been done. 所有能做的都做好了。
There is little that I can do for you. 我不能为你干什么。
He stayed in the library and looked up any information that they needed. 他呆在图书馆查找所需的资料。
注意：当先行词指人时，偶尔也可用关系代词who，如：
Any man that / who has a sense of duty won’t do such a thing. 任何有责任感的人都不会做这样的事。
All the guests that / who were invited to her wedding were important people. 所有应邀来参加她婚礼的客人都是重要人物。
2．当先行词被序数词修饰时。如：
The first place that they visited in London was the Big Ben. 在伦敦他们参观的第一个地方是大本钟。
3．当先行词被形容词最高级修饰时。如：
This is the best film that I have ever seen. 这是我看过的最好的电影。
4．当先行词被the very, the only修饰时。如：
This is the very dictionary that I want to buy. 这正是我要买的词典。
After the fire in his house, the old car is the only thing that he owns. 家里发生了火灾过后，那辆旧车成了他的唯一拥有。
注意：当先行词指人时，偶尔也可用关系代词who。如：
Wang Hua is the only person in our school who will attend the meeting. 王华是我校唯一出席会议的人。
5．当先行词前面有who, which等疑问代词时。如：
Who is the man that is standing by the gate 站在门口的那个人是谁？
Which is the T-shirt that fits me most 哪件T恤衫最合我的身？
6．当先行词为人与动物或人与物时。如：
They talked about the persons and things that they remembered at school 他们谈论着他们所能记起的在校时的人和事。
Look at the man and his donkey that are walking up the street.　瞧瞧那个沿街走来的人和他的 毛驴。　
2. 只能用which，不用that 的情况：
(1) 在非限制性定语从中。例如：
The meeting was put off, which was exactly what we wanted.
(2) 定语从句由介词+关系代词引导，先行词是物时。例如：
The thing about which he is talking is of great importance.
●关系代词as和which 引导的定语从句
as 和which 引导非限制性定语从句时， 其用法有相同之处，也有不同之处。具体情况是：
1. as 和which都可以在定语从句中做主语或宾语，代表前面整个句子。如：
He is honest, as / which we can see. 他很诚实， 这一点我们看得出来。
2. as 引导的非限制性定语从句可以放在主句之前、主句之后，甚至还可以分割主句。 which 引导的非限制性定语从句只可放在主句之后。另外，as 常常有“正如、正像”的含义。如：
As is known to all, China is a developing country. 众所周知，中国是发展中国家。
John, as you know, is a famous writer. 正如你所知， 约翰是个著名作家。
Zhang Hua has been to Paris more than ten times, which I don’t believe.
张华已去过巴黎十多次了，这一点我不相信。
注意：当主句和从句之间存在着逻辑上的因果关系时，关系词往往只用which。如：
Tom was late for school again and again, which made his teacher very angry.
汤姆老是迟到，这使得老师很恼火。
These tables are made of metal, which made them very heavy.
这些桌子是金属的，这使得这些桌子很重。
3. 当先行词受such, the same 修饰时，关系词常用as。 如：
I’ve never heard such stories as he tells. 我从未听过象他讲的这样的故事。
This is the same dictionary as I lost last week. 这部词典跟我上星期丢失的一样。
注意：当先行词受the same 修饰时，偶尔也用 that引导定语从句，但与as引导的定语从句意思有区别。如：
She wore the same dress that she wore at Mary’s wedding. 她穿着她在玛丽婚礼上穿过的同一条连衣裙。
She wore the same dress as her younger sister wore. 她穿着跟她妹妹所穿的一样的连衣裙。
【巩固练习】
一、把下列每对句子合并成含有定语从句的主从复合句：
1. The fan is on the desk. You want it.
2. The man is in the next room. He brought our textbooks here yesterday.
3. The magazine is mine. He has taken it away.
4. The students will not pass the exam . They don’t study hard.
5. The woman is our geography teacher. You saw her in the park.
6. The letter is from my sister. I received it yesterday.
7. The play was wonderful. We saw it last night.
8. The train was late. It was going to Nanning.
9. The boy is my brother. He was here a minute ago.
10. The tree is quite tall. He is climbing it.
11. Here is the girl. Her brother works in this shop.
12. That’s the child. We were looking at his drawing just now.
13. This is the boy. His sister is a famous singer.
14. I want to talk to the boys. Their homework haven’t been handed in.
15. Is that the woman Her daughter is in my class.
16. He used to live in a big house. In front of it grew many banana trees.
17. They passed a factory. At the back of the factory there were rice fields.
18. The soldier ran to the building. On the top of it flew a flag.
19. In the evening they arrived at a hill. At the foot of the hill there was a temple.
20. She came into a big room. In the middle of it stood a large table.
答案：
1. The fan that you want is on the desk. 2. The man who brought our textbooks here yesterday is in next room. 3. The magazine which he has taken away is mine. 4. The students who don’t study hard will not pass the exam. 5. The woman you saw in the park is our geography teacher. 6. The letter I received yesterday is from my sister. 7. The play that we saw last night was wonderful. 8. The train which was going to Nanning was late. 9. The boy who was here a minute ago is my brother. 10. The tree he is climbing is quite tall. 11. Here is the girl whose brother works in this shop. 12. That’s the child whose drawing we were looking at just now. 13. This is the boy whose sister is a favous singer. 14. I want to talk to the boy whose homework hasn’t been handed in. 15. Is that the woman whose daughter is in my class 16. He used to live in a big house, in front of which grew many banana trees. 17. They passed a factory, at the back of which there were rice fields. 18. The soldier ran to the building, on the top of which flew a flag. 19. In the evening they arrived at a hill, at the foot of which there was a temple. 20. She came into a big room, in the middle of which stood a large table.
二. 单项选择
1. ---Who is the man _______ was talking to our English teacher
---Oh! It’s Mr Baker, our maths teacher.
A. he B. that C. whom D. which
2. I hate the people ________ don’t help others when they are in trouble.
A. who B. which C. they D. where
3. The foreigner _________ visited our school is from Canada.
A. which B. when C. who D. whom
4. George Mallory was an English school teacher _______ loved climbing.
A. who B. whom C. he D. which
5. This is the place _____I have ever visited.
A. there B. when C. where D. which
6. Nobody knows the reason ______ she didn’t come to the meeting.
A. that B. which C. why D. when
7. The moon is a world ______ there is no life.
A. that B. which C. where D. why
8. He has forgotten the day _______ he arrived.
A. when B. where C. that D. which
9. He still remembers the days ______ he spent with your family.
A. when B. where C. that D. on which
10. Mr. White, ______ car had been stolen, came to the policeman.
A. who B. that C. whose D. which
11. He got to the village _______ his family once lived before liberation.
A. that B. which C. when D. where
12. This is the house _______ I want to buy.
A. in which B. that C. whose D. where
13. This is the house _______ our beloved Premier Zhou once lived and worked.
A. which B. that C. when D. where
14. He didn’t tell me the place _______ he was born.
A. that B. which C. when D. where
15. He lived in a small village, ______ was a long way from the railway station.
A. that B. which C. where D. when
【练习答案】
1.B 2.A 3.C 4.A 5.D 6.C 7.C 8.A 9.C 10.C 11.D 12.B 13.D 14.D 15.B
【能力提升】
1. Have you sent thank—you notes to the relatives from _ _ you received gifts
A. which B. them C. that D. whom
2. I wish to thank Professor Smith, without _______help I would never have got this far.
A. who B. whose C. whom D. which
3. The air quality in the city, ______ is shown in the report, has improved over the past two months.
A. that B. it C. as D. what
4. It is the third time that she has won the race, ______ has surprised us all.
A. that B. where C. which D. what
5. Maria has written two novels, both of ________ have been made into television series.
A. them B. that C. which D. what
6. In our class there are 46 students, ________ half wear glasses.
A. in whom B. in them C. of whom D. of them
7．By 16:30, was almost closing time, nearly all the paintings had been sold.
A．which B．when C．what D．that
8. We live in an age ________ more information is available with greater ease than ever before.
A. why B. when C. to whom D. on which
9. Ellen was a painter of birds and of nature, _____, for some reason, had withdrawn from all
human society.
A. which B. who C. where D. whom
DBCCC CABB第二章 语音基本知识
一、26个英文字母及发音音标
A a [eI] B b [bi:] C c [si:] D d [di:]
E e [i:] F f [ef] G g [d i:] H h [eIt ]
I i [aI] J j [d eI] K k [keI] L l [el]
M m [em] N n [en] O o [ ] P p [pi:]
Q q [kju:] R r [ɑ:] S s [es] T t [ti:]
U u [ju:] V v [vi:] W w [′d∧blju:] X x [eks]
Y y [waI] Z z [zi:][zed]
从以上我们可以看出，英语字母中有一些含有共同的元音音素，比如：
1）含元音音素[eI]
字母： Aa Hh Jj Kk
音标： [eI] [eIt ] [d eI] [keI]
2）含元音音素[i:]
字母： Bb Cc Dd Ee Gg Pp Tt Vv
音标： [bi:] [si:] [di:] [i:] [d i:] [pi:] [ti:] [vi:]
3）含元音音素[e]
字母： Ff Ll Mm Nn Ss Xx Zz
音标： [ef] [el] [em] [en] [es] [eks] [zed]
4）含元音音素[ju:]
字母： Uu Qq Ww
音标： [ju:] [kju:] [`d∧blju:]
5） 含元音音素[aI]
字母： Ii Yy
音标： [aI] [waI]
二、英语音标
英语音标一共有48个，具体如下：
元音
12个单元音
长元音
[i:] [З:] [ :] [u:] [ɑ:]
短元音
[e] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [Λ]
8个双元音
[aI] [eI] [ I] [ ] [I ] [e ] [ ] [a ]
辅音
10对
清辅音
[p] [t] [k] [f] [s] [θ] [∫] [t ] [tr] [ts]
浊辅音
[b] [d] [g] [v] [z] [ ] [ ] [d ] [dr] [dz] [m] [n] [ ]
3个似拼音
[h] [r] [l]
2个半元音
[w] [j]
三、英语口腔发音图
1、上唇(upper lip) 2、下唇(lower lip) 3、上齿(upper teeth)
4、下齿(lower teeth) 5、齿龈(alveolar ridge) 6、硬腭(hard palate)
7、软腭(soft palate) 8、小舌(uvula) 9、舌尖(tip of the tongue)
10、舌前部(front of the tongue) 11、舌后部(back of the tongue)
12、喉头(larynx) 13、声带(vocal cords) 14、气管(trachea)
15、咽腔(pharynx) 16、口腔(oral cavity) 17、鼻腔(nasal cavity)
四、48个英语国际音标发音规则及练习
元音
1、前元音[i:] [ ] [e] [ ]
所谓前元音是指发音时要使用舌前部，也就是说舌前部要向硬腭抬起，舌尖要抵住下齿，口形扁平，不要收圆。四个前元音中发[i:]的时候舌前部抬得最高，牙床近乎全合。发[ ]的时候舌前部比[i:]稍低，牙床也开得稍大一些。上下齿之间的距离大约可以容纳一个小指尖。发第三个前元音[e]的时候舌前部比[ ]又要第一些，牙床也开得更大一些。上下齿之间的距离大约相当于一个食指尖。发第四个前元音[ ]的时候舌前部最低，牙床开得最大。上下齿之间的距离大约相当于一个食指加中指。
[i:] me he she these Chinese meet
[ ] sit six is it this milk
[e] desk pen bed egg red
[ ] bag map apple cat hand
2、后元音[ɑ:] [Λ] [ :] [ ] [u:] [ ]
所谓后元音是指发音时要使用舌的后部，也就是说舌后部要向软腭抬起。发后元音时舌尖可以不抵下齿。除了后元音[ɑ:]要用中常唇外，其它四个音都要用圆唇，发音时嘴要拢圆。个别的音如[ ] [u:]嘴唇还要向前突出。其次，要注意后元音的舌位。五个后元音中[ɑ:]的舌位最低，开口最大。[Λ]的舌位比[ɑ:]稍高，开口度比[ɑ:]稍小。[ :]的舌位比[Λ]又要更高一些。[ ]的舌位比[ :]又要高一些，开口度再小一些。[u:]的舌位最高，开口最小。发[ ]音时，要注意双唇收圆，不然容易发成[ɑ:]，所以学习这个音时可以先发[ɑ:]，然后将双唇收圆，就会发出[ ]音。
[ɑ:] part half ask class father
[Λ] cut love touch bus come
[ :] sort door saw talk four
[ ] put book woman look could
[u:] do zoo blue ruler move
[ ] top cock box what want
3、中元音[З:] [ ]
所谓中元音是指发音时要使用舌的中部，也就是说舌的中部要稍稍抬起，舌尖可以轻抵下齿，口形扁平或中常。[З:]的舌位比 [ ]稍高。
[З:] bird serve term work turn
[ ] about China letter actor again
上面提到了12个单元音。英语里还有8个双元音。这8个双元音又可分成两类，合口双元音和集中双元音，下面分别讲解。
4、合口双元音[eI] [aI] [ I] [ ] [a ]
所谓“合口双元音”是指两个元音中的第二个元音都是一个合口元音[ ]或[ ]。发双元音时要注意从第一个元音向第二个元音滑动。在滑动过程中，口形、舌位都有明显的变化。另外，还要注意双元音的下面几个特点：
1）、前长后短（前音长后音短）。2）、前重后轻（前音发得重，后音发得轻）。3）、前音清楚，后音模糊。
[eI] cake plane snake table baby
[aI] bike life light type nice
[ I] toy voice coin enjoy boy
[ ] go boat hope know home
[a ] now how loud house out
5、集中双元音[I ] [e ] [ ]
所谓集中双元音是指两个元音中的第二个元音都是中元音[ ]。发音时要注意第一个元音向第二个元音滑动时的口形和舌位的变化。比如发[I ]时舌位由前元音[I]向中元音[ ]的滑动。口形由半合的扁唇变为稍高于半开的扁唇。发[e ]时由相当于前元音[e]的舌位向中元音[ ]滑动，口形由半开的中常唇变为稍高于半开的扁唇。发[ ]时由后元音[ ]向中元音[ ]的滑动，口形由半合的圆唇变为稍高于半开的扁唇。
[I ] fear beer ear hear deer
[e ] care bear fair where chair
[ ] sure tour poor moor cure
辅音
1、爆破音
爆破音一共有六个，根据发音时声带是否振动可以分为清辅音和浊辅音两种。清辅音有三个：[p]，[t]，[k]；浊辅音也有三个：[b]，[d]，[g]。这样，六个爆破音就可以归纳为清、浊相对应的三对。第一对是：[p]，第二对是：[t]，[d]，第三对是[k]，[g]
[p]，双唇音，发音时，双唇紧闭，气流从口腔冲出，送气有力；清音，发音时不震动声带。
pen map top pipe cup
[b]，双唇音，发音时，双唇紧闭，气流从口腔冲出，送气有力；但 它在词尾时发得很轻，不如[p]送气有力；浊音，发音时震动声带。
bee beep about lab bat
[t]，齿槽音，发音时，舌端抵齿槽，气流从口腔冲出，送气有力；清音。
butter that fat debt dealer
[d]，齿槽音，发 音时，舌端抵齿槽，气流从口腔冲出，但在词尾时发得很轻，不如[t]送气有力；浊音。
desk food deep door dot
[k]，后舌音，发音时，后舌隆起，气流从喉咙口用力冲出，送气有力；清音，发音时不振动声带。
cook book kick bucket tick
[g]，后舌音，发音时，后舌隆起，气流从喉咙口用力冲出，送气有力；但在词尾时发得很轻，不如 [k]送气有力；浊音，发音时振动声带。
get game good dog tag
2、摩擦音
摩擦音一共有十个。其中八个音又可以分为清、浊音相对应的四对。第一对是唇齿摩擦音[f]，[v]。发音时下唇轻触上齿，气流通过时摩擦成音，[f]是清辅音，[v]是浊辅音。第二对是舌齿摩擦音[θ]，[ ]。发音时舌尖要轻触上齿边缘。[θ]是清辅音，[ ]是浊辅音。第三对是舌端齿龈摩擦音[s]，[z]。发音时舌端靠近（上）齿龈，气流通过时摩擦成音。[s]是清辅音，[z]是浊辅音。第四对是舌端齿龈后部摩擦辅音[ ]，[ ]。发音时舌端向齿龈后部靠近，气流通过时摩擦成音。[ ]是清辅音，[ ]是浊辅音。第九个音是声门摩擦辅音[h]。第十个音是舌尖齿龈后部摩擦辅音[r]。发这个音时舌尖要卷起来，靠近齿龈后部。这个音的本音是[r]。
[f] foot fit after knife tough
[v] very five live cover carve
[θ] thick thank tooth mouth think
[ ] other the there they father
[s] see saw soup boss say
[z] zoo cause pause hers these
[ ] cash fish short wish sure
[ ] vision pleasure measure treasure visual
[h] home hard head behind whole
[r] red write frog carry rose
3、破擦音
破擦音共有六个：[t ]，[d ]，[tr] ，[dr]，[ts]， [dz]。破擦音由两个成分组成：开头是爆破音，结尾是摩擦音。六个破擦音也可以分成清、浊相对应的三对。第一对是[t ]，[d ]。在[t ]，[d ]中的第一个成分，即爆破音[t]，[d]由于受了后面摩擦音[ ]，[ ]的影响，发音时舌位靠后，在齿龈较后部分发音。这一点也适用于第二对破擦音[tr] ，[dr]。这里，[t], [d]由于受了后面摩擦音[r]的影响舌位也要靠后，后面再加上[r]，分别念成[tr], [dr]。第三对破擦音[ts]，[dz]中的清辅音[ts]很像汉语普通话里的c（雌、雄的“雌”），加上声带振动就能发出浊辅音[dz]。
[t ] cheap fetch chalk teach watch
[d ] jaw jazz danger age cage
[tr] tree trade transport troop street
[dr] drill dress dry dream drink
[ts] students guests pockets puts spirits
[dz] odds ends hands friends sends
4、鼻辅音
英语里有三个鼻辅音，即[m]，[n]，[ ]。发鼻音时，由于口腔通道被堵住，声音只能从鼻子里出来。发第一个鼻辅音[m]时双唇闭拢；发第二个鼻辅音[n]，（不闭嘴）舌尖要贴住上齿龈；发第三个鼻辅音[ ]，（不闭嘴）舌后部要抬起来，贴住软腭。
[m] my make farm map number
[n] new night knife near finish
[ ] long ink bank think sing
5、舌边音
英语里的舌边音有两种发音方法。1）出现在元音之前叫作清晰舌边音，它的发音是[l]；2）出现在辅音及单词末尾时叫作模糊舌边音，它的发音是[l]。发这个音时可以先摆好发后元音[ ]的舌位，然后把舌端贴住上齿龈。这样发出来的音就是[l]。
[l] 清晰舌边音law lake follow large last
模糊舌边音little gentle middle article giggle people
6、半元音
半元音[w]，[j]的舌位和元音[u:]，[i:]相似，但半元音的发音方法和元音不同。元音可以单独成音，可以延长。半元音则不能单独成音，不可延长，必须很快滑向它后面的元音，和元音拼合在一起发音。由于这一特点也有人把半元音[w]，[j]称为“滑音”。
[w] why what swim wash white
[j] yes yellow you yet beyond第八章 状语从句
用来修饰主句中的动词，副词和形容词的从句叫状语从句。根据其含义状语从句可分为时间状语从句，地点状语从句，条件状语从句， 原因状语从句，结果状语从句，比较状语从句，目的状语从句，让步状语从句。
1. 时间状语从句
(1)时间状语从句常用when, as, while, before, after, since, till, until, as soon as等连词来引导。例如：
It was raining hard when got to school yesterday.
While he was doing his homework, the telephone rang.
As he walked along the lake, he sang happily.
He had learned a little Chinese before he came to China.
After he finished middle school, he went to work in a factory.
(2)在时间状语从句里，通常不用将来时态，用现在时态表示将来的动作或状态。例如：
I’ll ring you up as soon as I get to New York.
I will tell him everything when he comes back.
He won’t believe it until he sees it with his own eyes.
(3)在带有till或until引导的时间状语从句的主从复合句里，如果主句用肯定式，其含义是“一直到……时”，谓语动词只能用延续性动词。如果主句用否定式，其含义是“直到……才……”, “在……以前不……”, 谓语动词可用瞬间动词。例如：
The young man read till the light went out.
Let’s wait until the rain stops.
We won’t start until Bob comes.
Don’t get off until the bus stops.
2. 条件状语从句
(1)条件状语从句通常由if, unless引导。例如：
What shall we do if it snows tomorrow
Don’t leave the building unless I tell you to.
(2)在条件状语从句里，谓语动词通常用现在时态表示将来的动作或状态。例如：
I’ll help you with your English if am free tomorrow.
He won’t be late unless he is ill.
(3)“祈使句 + and (or)+ 陈述句” 在意思上相当于一个带有条件状语从句的复合句。例如：
Hurry up, or you’ll be late.
=If you don’t hurry up, you’ll be late.
Study hard and you will pass the exam.
=If you study hard, you will pass the exam.
3. 原因状语从句
(1)原因状语从句通常由because, since, as引导。例如：
He didn’t come to school because he was ill.
As it is raining, we shall not go the zoo.
Since you can’t answer the question, I’ll ask someone else.
(2)because表示直接原因，语气最强。Because引导的原因状语从句多放在主句之后。回答由why提出的问题，只能用because。As和since语气较弱，一般用来表示明显的原因。由as和since引导的原因状语从居多放在句首。例如：
------Why aren’t going there
------Because I don’t want to.
As he has no car, he can’t get there easily.
Since we have no money, we can’t buy it.
(3)because和so不能同用在一个句子里。
4. 结果状语从句
(1)结果状语从句由so…that, such…that, so that引导。例如：
He is so poor that he can’t buy a bike for his son.
She is such a good teacher that everybody likes her.
My pencil fell under the desk, so that I couldn’t see it.
(2)so…that语such...that可以互换。例如：
在由so...that引导的结果状语从句中，so是副词，与形容词连用。其结构是: “...so + 形容词（副词）+ that + 从句”。例如：
He was so glad that he couldn’t say a word.
The hall is so big that it can hold 2,000 people.
Mother lives so far away that we hardly ever see her.
在由such…that引导的结果状语从句中，such是形容词，它修饰的可以是单数或复数可数名词，也可以是不可数名词；名词前面可以带形容词，也可不带。如果是单数可数名词，前面需加不定冠词a或an。例如：
It was such a hot day that nobody wanted to do anything.
He had such long arms that he could almost touch the ceiling.
He made such rapid progress that he did very well in the mid-term.
有时上述两种结构是可以互换的。例如：
It was such a wonderful film that all of us wanted to see it again.
=The film was so wonderful that all of us wanted to see it again.
It is such an important match that nobody wants to miss it.
=The match is so important that nobody wants to miss it.
(3)如果名词前由many, much, little, few等词修饰时，只能用so, 不用such。例如：
Soon there were so many deer that they ate up all the wild roses.
He has so little time that he can’t go to the cinema with you.
5. 比较状语从句
比较状语从句通常由as…as, 比较级 + than…等连词引导。例如：
Tom runs faster than John does.
This classroom is as big as that one.
6. 目的状语从句
(1)目的状语从句通常由 so that, in order that引导。例如：
We started early so that we could catch the first train.
He studies hard so that he could work better in the future.
We used the computer in order that we might save time.
(2)so that既可引导目的状语从句，又可引导结果状语从句。区别这两种从句的办法有两个：1)目的状语从句里往往带有情态动词can, could, may, might等。2)从意思上看，目的状语从句往往表示的目的很明确。例如：
Speak clearly so that they may understand you. (目的状语从句)
Jack is badly ill so that he has to rest. (结果状语从句)
7. 让步状语从句
(1) though, although　
注意： 当有though, although时，后面的从句不能有but，
但是 though 和yet, still nevertheless（仍然，不过）可连用　
Although it's raining, they are still working in the field.　　虽然在下雨，但他们仍在地里干活。　
He is very old, but he still works very hard.　　 虽然他很老，但仍然努力地工作。　
(2) as, though 引导的倒装句
as / though引导的让步从句必须表语或状语提前（形容词、副词、分词、实义动词提前）。　　 Child as /though he was, he knew what was the right thing to do.　= Though he was a small child, he knew what was the right thing to do.
注意： a.　句首名词不能带任何冠词。　　　　
b.　句首是实义动词，其他助动词放在主语后。如果实义动词有宾语和状语，随实义动词一起放在主语之前。Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.== Though he tries hard, he never seems…　虽然他尽了努力，但他的工作总做的不尽人意。
(3) 　ever if, even though.　即使
We'll make a trip even though the weather is bad.
whether…or-　 不管……都　　 Whether you believe it or not, it is true.
(4)"no matter +疑问词" 或"疑问词+后缀ever" 　　
No matter what happened, he would not mind.
Whatever happened, he would not mind.
替换： no matter what = whatever　 no matter who = whoever　 no matter when = whenever　
no matter where = wherever no matter which = whichever no matter how = however　
(5)while引导让步状语从句的问题
while在引导不同的从句时有着不同的意思和功能。在正式的书面文体中，while经常被用来代替although引导让步状语从句。如：　
While I admit that there are problems, I don’t agree that they can’t be solved.
While teaching seems easy to do, it is fairly difficult to be a qualified teacher.
8. 地点状语从句
地点状语从句常常由where来引导。例如：
Go where you like.
Where there is a will, there is a way.
【演练】
一. 单项填空
1. _______ he’s old, he can still carry this heavy bag.
A. Though B. Since C. For D. So
2. ---Do you know if he _______ to play basket ball with us
---I think he will come if he ______ free tomorrow.
A. comes; is B. comes; will be C. will come; is D. will come; will be
3. In the zoo if a child _____ into the water and can’t swim, the dolphins may come up ______ him.
A. will fall; to help B. falls; to help
C. will fall; help D. falls; helping
4. I don’t remember ________ he worked in that city when he was young.
A. what B. which C. where D. who
5. We will stay at home if my aunt ________ to visit us tomorrow.
A. comes B. come C. will come D. is coming
6. The police asked the children _______ cross the street ________ the traffic lights turned green.
A. not; before B. don’t; when C. not to; until D. not; after
7. I was late for class yesterday _______ there was something wrong with my bike.
A. when B. that C. until D. because
8. I’ll go swimming with you if I ________ free tomorrow.
A. will be B. shall be C. am D. was
9. In the exam, the ________ you are, ______ the _______ mistakes you will make.
A. careful; little B. more careful; fewest
C. more careful; fewer D. more careful; less
10. You should finish your lessons _______ you go out to paly.
A. before B. after C. when D. while
11. I hurried _____ I wouldn’t be late for class.
A. since B. so that C. as if D. unless
12. When you read the book, you’d better make a mark _______ you have any questions.
A. which B. that C. where D. though
13. The teacher raised his voice _______ all the students could hear him.
A. for B. so that C. because D. in order
14. He took off his coat _______ he felt hot.
A. because B. as C. if D. since
15. It is ______ that we’d like to go out for a walk.
A. a lovely day B. too lovely a day
C. so lovely a day D. such lovely a day
16. Mary had ______ much work to do that she stayed at her office all day.
A. such B. so C. too D. very
17. _______ I felt very tired, I tried to finish the work.
A. Although B. Because C. As D. As if
18. ______ the day went on, the weather got worse.
A. With B. Since C. While D. As
19. ______ well you can drive, you must drive carefully.
A. So long as B. In order that
C. No matter how D. The moment
20. Write to me as soon as you ________ to Beijing.
A. will get B. get C. getting D. got
【练习答案】
1.A 2.C 3.B 4.C 5.A 6.C 7.D 8.C 9.C 10.A 11.B 12.C 13.B 14.A 15.C 16.B 17.A 18.D 19.C 20.B
1. I don't believe we've met before, _______ I must say you do look familiar.
A. therefore B. although C. since D. unless
2. —Look at those clouds!
—Don’t worry. ______ it rains, we’ll still have a great time.
A. Even if B.As though C. In case D. If only
3. Everything was placed exactly ___________he wanted it for the graduation ceremony.
A. while B. when C. where D. though
4. One’s life has value ________ one brings value to the life of others.
A. so that B. no matter how C. as long as D. except that
5. ________ I always felt I would pass the exam, I never thought I would get an A.
A. While B. Once C. If D. Until
6. He smiled politely ______ Mary apologized for her drunken friends.
A. as B. if C. unless D. though
7. — Coach, can I continue with the training
— Sorry, you can’t ________ you haven’t recovered from the knee injure.
A. until B. before C. because D. unless
8. It is hard for the Greek government to get over the present difficulties ____ it gets more
financial support from the European Union.
A. if B. unless C. because D. since第六章 并列句
一、并列句的构成：
并列句是由并列连词and，but，or，for，so等把两个或两个以上互不依从，但意思紧密联系的简单句连在一起而构成的句子。其结构为：简单句+并列连词+简单句。
二、并列句的分类：
1. 表示同等关系的并列句
这类并列句常用并列连词and连接前后简单句，and常译为“和”、“并且”，也可不译出来。例如：
He likes playing football and he plays well.他喜欢踢足球，并且踢得很好。
Last year l met Kate and we became friends.去年我和凯特相遇，我们成了朋友。
2. 表示转折关系的并列句
这类并列句常用并列连词but(但是)，yet(可是)，while(而，另一方面)，however(可是)等连接前后简单句，but常译为“但是”，“可是”，切不可与从属连词though或although一起使用。例如：
It has no mouth, but it can talk. 它没有嘴巴，但是它会说话。
School is over, yet all the teachers are still working.
学校放学了，可是老师们仍然在工作。
He wants to be a writer, while I want to be a scientist.
他想当作家，而我则想当科学家。
It's raining hard, however, we must go out. 雨下得很大，然而我们必须出去。
3. 表示选择关系的并列句
这类并列句常用并列连词or(或者，否则)等连接前后简单句。
or有两重含义：
(1)译为“或者”，表示选择。例如：
Now you can have a rest or you can go to the cinema. 现在你可以休息，或者去看电影。
(2)译为“否则”、“要不然”，表示条件。例如：
You must tell the truth，or you will be punished.
你必须说真话，否则你将会受到惩罚。
4. 表示因果关系的并列句
这类并列句常用并列连词for，so等连接前后简单句。
(1)for在意义上与从属连词because，since和as相同，但它们引导的是原因状语从句，而for则连接两个简单句，前者表示结果，后者表示原因。其结构为：简单句(结果)+for+简单句(原因)。
例如：He has many good friends, for he is an honest man。
他有许多好朋友，因为他是个诚实的男子汉。
(2)so意为“因此”、“所以”，但不能与because同时出现在同一个句子中。因为because是从属连词，而是并列连词，用来连接并列句。其结构为：简单句(原因) +so牛简单句(结果)。例如：
Mr. Li went to his hometown, so Mr. Wang was taking his class instead.
李老师回家乡去了，所以王老师替二课。
5. 其他形式的并列句
(1)“祈使句+and+简单句”。其中祈使句表示一个条件，并列连词and引导的简单句则表示一个较好的结果，谓语常用一般将来时。例如：
Use your head, and you will find a way. 动脑筋，你就会想出办法来。
(2)“祈使句+or+简单句”。祈使句表示一个条件，并列连词or后的简单句则表示一个不愉快或不理想的结果。例如：
Study hard, or you will fall behind the others. 努力学习，否则你就会落于别人。
(3)“either...or”结构表示“不是……就是……”，“或者……或者……”，例如：
Either my uncle can do it, or my aunt can do it.
我叔叔可以做那件事，或者我婶婶也可以做。
习惯上将两个句子合并成Either my uncle or my aunt can do it.
(4) “not only…but also”意思为“不仅……而且……”，例如：
Not only the students have missed the school car, but also the teacher has missed the school car.
不仅学生，而且他们的老师都误了校车。
(5) “neither…nor…”结构，意为“既不……也不……”，“两者都不……”，用法与either …or…,not only …but also…相同。
三、使用并列句要注意的几种情况
1. 并列句有时可不用连词，而用分号隔开(前后句之间的关系须相当紧密)。例如：
We fished all day; we didn't catch a fish.我们钓了一天的鱼，一条鱼也没钓到。
2. 并列连词后的简单句如果与其前的简单句有相同的部分，则相同的部分常可省略。例如：
My father works in a factory and my mother in a school.
我父亲在工厂工作，母亲在学校工作。
3. 由so, nor, neither连接的并列句，后一简单句为避免重复,其成份常倒装并省略一些。例如：
He is not a student, nor am I. 他不是学生，我也不是。
Beibei can swim, so can I. 贝贝会游泳，我也会。
四、并列句的典型例题
例1. Work hard, _______ you will pass the during test.
A. or B. but C. because D. and
解析：“努力学习”，“你就会通过驾驶考试”，两者之间是并列关系，应用句式“祈使句+and+简单句”。
答案：D
例2. Stop cutting trees, _______ the earth will become worse and worse.
A. and B. then C but D. or
解析：根据句意，前后是转折关系，应用句式“祈使句+or+简单句”。
答案：D
例3. They bought Granny a present _______ she liked it very much.
A. and B. so C. but
解析：本题前后两句表示并列关系。
答案：A
例4. They all went to the cinema _______I didn't.
A. get B. or C. but D. so
解析：本题的前后意思带有转折关系。
答案：C
例5. — Hello, Mr. Huang!
—I'm sorry, ________ I don't think I know you.
A. and B. or C. but D. because
解析：本题的前后意思带有转折关系，but此处意为“可是”。
答案：C
例6. The little boy is very young _______ he can look after himself well.
A. so B. but C. if D. or
解析：本题的前后两句有明显的转折关系。
答案：B
例7. Bill put his hands behind his back, _______ nobody could see his hands.
A. so B. and C. or D. but
解析：从上下文可知nobody could see his hands的原因是Bill put his hands behind his back，所以应该用so来表示结果。
答案：A
例8. Neither you nor I ________ from Canada. We are from Australia.
A. is B. are C. am D. be
解析：“neither…nor…”结构意为“既不……也不……”，“两者都不……”，连接主语时，谓语动词应与其邻近的主语保持一致。
答案：C
能力提升
一、选择填空：
1. did she go to see her father , did she want her father to come .
A. Either, or B. Not , only C. No, sooner D. Neither, nor
2. She didn’t go to school yesterday, he had hurt her legs while climbing the mountain.
A. but B. however C. or D. for
3. You can study Chinese English.
A. not only, but B. either , or C. both , or D. only , and
4. Tom works very hard, his family is still very poor.
A. yet B. for C. so D. and
5. you your parents go with us .
A. Either, or B. Both, or C. Either, nor D. Not, but
6. Some are reading newspapers, others are playing basketball.
A. or B. for C. so D. while
7. We want high speed good marks.
A. both, and B. Either, or C. neither, nor D. not, also but
8. In spring it is hot cold here.
A. both, and B. either, or C. neither, nor D. not only, but
9. Maybe he has gone home, he is in his office.
A. or B. but C. nor D. yet
10. You can stay at home go out to play.
A. either, or B. both, and C. so, that D. as , as
11. I help him he helps me. We help each other.
A. but B. and C. or D. for
12. Don’t play football here, you may break the windows.
A. or B. but C. and D. so
13. Jim was very hungry he ate all the cakes.
A. and B. but C. so D. or
14. Hurry up, we’ll be late for the concert.
A. and B. but C. so D. or
15. The nurse is very tired she is still working very hard .
A. but B. and C. or D. if
16. Li Lei passed his father this cup asked for some more tea.
A. but B. and C. of D. if
17. Are you going to play basketball football this afternoon
A. and B. but C. or D. that
18. He speaks not only English also French.
A. and B. but C. or D. that
19. He likes sports Jim enjoys reading.
A. When B. while C. then D. or
20. Go straight along the street, turn to the left at the end of the street and you’ll fine the post office .
A. then B. so C. but D. yet
21. She came here, she didn’t see me.
A. so B. but C. and D. or
22. Jim likes getting up early, his sister doesn’t.
A. and B. or C. so D. but
23. He got up late this morning, he was late for school.
A. so B. but C. while D. yet
24. Are you free busy this evening
A. and B. but C. or D. then
25. They are not apples, pears .
A. and B. yet C. but D. so
26. Jim is good at maths. is Kate .
A. So B. And C. But D. Then
27. He didn’t do his homework, his teacher was very angry.
A. but B. yet C. or D. so
28. Get up early, you’ll be late for school.
A. but B. so C. or D. and
29. Hurry up , you’ll catch the early bus .
A. but B. and C. so D. or
30. We may take Grandma Li to hospital, we are busy .
A. and B. but C. so D. or
31. I went there by plane, he went there by car.
A. and B. but C. so D. or
32. He made faces in class we laughed.
A. and B. but C. so D. or
33. I was ill , I stayed at home .
A. and B. so C. but D. or
34. He was late, was she.
A. and B. so C. but D. or
35. She can’t swim, can be.
A. nor B. or C. so D. but
36. he I know about this accident because it was kept as a secret .
A. Both , nor B. Neither , nor C. Both , and D. Neither , or
37. Tuesday Wednesday is OK . I’ll be free these days .
A. Both , and B. Neither , or C. Either , or D. So , that
38. John Ann were ill yesterday .
A. Neither , nor B. Either , or C. Both , and D. So , that
39. The shop is new , it has been open only for three days .
A. for B. and C. but D. so
40. His face turned red he felt shy.
A. for B. but C. so D. and
41. He never drinks smokes.
A. and B. but C. or D. so
42. Call a taxi, you won’t be able to catch the underground train .
A. and B. or C. but D. so
43. Li Lei found a watch in the street, he picked it up .
A. or B. but C. and D. yet
44. You needn’t sweep the floor, it’s very clean.
A. and B. but C. or D. for
45. Chinese dishes are delicious, cooking takes a lot of time.
A. for B. so C. but D. and
46. Neither of them is in god health, both work very hard .
A. and B. but C. then D. so
47. Tom works very hard, he still failed in the exam .
A. yet B. so C. and D. or
48. The sky was clear, the sun was shining.
A. but B. and C. or D. for
49. Hide behind the tree, he will see and catch you.
A. and B. or C. but D. yet
50. I felt tired after the work, I took a long rest.
A. so B. but C. for D. or
51. I hate smoking, I don’t like drinking, either.
A. though B. but C. and D. for
52. Hurry up, you’ll be late for the early bus.
A. and B. then C. but D. or
53. The man lives simply, for he for a long time.
A. has been out of work B. has lost his works C. was out of his work D. was lost his job
54. Everyone is here, Li Lei isn’t.
A. or B. but C. and D. yet
55. I am a student my brother is a doctor.
A. or B. yet C. and D. so
56. He didn’t answer her, he asked her a question.
A. that B. if C. or D. yet
57. Everyone in our class has furnished their homework, Lin Tao didn’t.
A. but B. or C. and D. so
58. Work harder, you’ll catch up with the others.
A. and B. but C. or D. so
59. They bought her a present, she liked it very much.
A. and B. but C. or D. so
60. This is our first lesson, I don’t know all your names.
A. and B. but C. or D. so
一、1 – 5 DDBAA 6 – 10 DACAA 11 – 15 BACDA 16 – 20 BBBBA 21 – 25 BDACC 26 – 30 ADCBB 31 – 35 AABBA 36 – 40 BCCAD 41 – 45 CBCDC 46 – 50 BABBA 51 – 55 CDABC 56 – 60 DAAAD第四章 句法
第一节 句子成分
组成句子的各个部分叫作句子成分。英语的句子成分和中文的句子成分大致相同，根据英语词汇在英语句子中的地位和作用, 英语句子的成分可分为主语、谓语、宾语、宾语补足语、表语、定语、状语、同位语及独立成分等。其中，主语和谓语是句子的主要成分，一般情况下，一个句子不能缺少这两种成分。
一、主语——表明句子里所谈的是：“什么人”或“什么物”，主语常用名词、代词或相当于名词的词或短语充当。例如:
Lily likes her new bike.(名词) 莉莉喜欢她的新自行车。
He gets up early every day.(代词) 他每天都起得很早。
To learn English well is not easy.（不定式短语）学好英语不容易。
二、谓语——说明主语“做什么”、“是什么”或“怎么样”，谓语用动词充当。例如：
We work hard.我们努力工作。
The boy caught a bird. 那个男孩逮住一只鸟。
He is my father. 他是我父亲。
They all look fine. 他们都很好。
谓语和主语在人称和数方面必须保持一致。例如：
I am reading. You are reading. He\She is reading. We are reading.
三、宾语——宾语是动作行为的对象。由名词、代词或相当于名词或代词的词或短语充当，和及物动词一起构成谓语，说明主语“做什么”。例如：
Tom bought a story-book.（名词）汤姆买了一本故事书。
I saw him yesterday. （代词）昨天我看到他了。
He wanted to have a cup of tea. （不定式短语）他想要一杯茶。
直接宾语和间接宾语——有些及物动词可以有两个宾语，一个指人，一个指物，指人的叫作间接宾语，指物的叫直接宾语。合称双宾。例如：
He gave me some ink . 他给了我一些墨水。
间接宾语 直接宾语
Our teacher told us an interesting story. 老师给我妈讲了一个有趣的故事。
间接宾语 直接宾语
四、表语——说明主语“是什么”或“怎么样”，与连系动词一起构成谓语，表语由名词、形容词、或相当于名词或形容词的词或短语等充当。例如：
My sister is a nurse.（名词）我的姐姐是一名护士。
They were at home.（介词短语）他们在家里。
She got angry. （形容词）她生气了。
Her grandfather is over eighty years old.（数词）她的祖父八十多岁了。
五、定语——定语是修饰名词或代词的，可以作定语的除形容词外，还有名词、代词、数词、介词短语或相当于形容词的词或短语等。例如：
This is a green cup.（形容词）这是一个绿色的杯子。
Are these students your classmates （代词）这些学生是你班的吗？
Winter is the coldest season of the year.（介词短语）冬天是一年中最冷的季节。
I have something important to tell you.（不定式）我有重要的事情要告诉你。
The people here are very friendly.（副词）这里的人们非常友好。
注意：形容词作定语时通常放在被修饰的词之前。而介词短语、不定式短语或副词等作定语时则放在被修饰的词之后。
六、状语——状语是修饰动词、形容词、或副词的，有的修饰全句。可以作状语的主要是副词和介词短语或相当于副词的词或短语等。例如：
You are quite right .（副词） 你非常正确。
Mr.Wu comes to the school by bike. (介词短语) 吴老师骑自行车上学校。
She will arrive in Beijing on Monday. （介词短语）她将于星期一到达北京。
He stopped to have a look. （不定式短语）他停下来看了看。
七、宾语补足语 ——有些及物动词的宾语后边还需要有一个补足语，意思才能够完整。宾语和它的补足语构成复合宾语。例如：
We call her Xiao Li.
宾语 宾语补足语
You must keep the room clean and tidy.
宾语 宾语补足语
John asked me to help him with his Chinese.
宾语 宾语补足语
I will have my hair cut tomorrow.
宾语 宾语补足语
We saw the boy playing basketball on the playground just now.
宾语 宾语补足语
8. 同位语：若两个语法单位指同一个人或事物，并且，句法功能也一样，那么，后一项称为前一项的同位语。如： This is my friend Harry. / We students should study hard.
9. 独立成分：与句子其他成分没有通常的语法关系，如插入语、感叹语、呼语等，一般用逗号将它与句子隔开。如：
Strange to say, he did pass his exam after all. 说也奇怪，考试他竟然通过了。
句子成分巧记歌诀
主谓宾表定状补， 七种成分记清楚。
句子主干主谓宾（表），枝叶成分定状补。
定语修饰主宾表， 宾语之后常有补。
主谓人称数一致， 状语位置最灵活。
巩固练习
(一). 指出下列句中主语的中心词
① The teacher with two of his students is walking into the classroom.
② There is an old man coming here.
③ The useful dictionary was given by my mother last year.
④ To do today's homework without the teacher's help is very difficult.
(二). 选出句中谓语的中心词
① I don't like the picture on the wall.
A. don't B. like C. picture D. wall
② The days get longer and longer when summer comes.
A. get B. longer C. days D. summer
③ Do you usually go to school by bus
A. Do B. usually C. go D. bus
④ There will be a meeting at the library this afternoon.
A. will be B. meeting C. the library D. afternoon
⑤ Did the twins have porridge for their breakfast
A. Did B. twins C. have D. breakfast
⑥ Tom didn't do his homework yesterday.
A. Tom B. didn't C. do D. his homework
⑦ What I want to tell you is this.
A. want B. to tell C. you D. is
⑧ We had better send for a doctor.
A. We B. had C. send D. doctor
⑨ He is interested in music.
A. is B. interested C. in D. music
⑩ Whom did you give my book to
A. give B. did C. whom D. book
(三) 挑出下列句中的宾语
① My brother hasn't done his homework.
　　　　A B C D
② People all over the world speak English.
　 A B C D
③ You must pay good attention to your pronunciation.
　　　　　　　A B C D
④ How many new words did you learn last class
　　　　　　　　A B C D
⑤ Some of the students in the school want to go swimming, how about you
　　　　 A B C D
⑥ The old man sitting at the gate said he was ill.
　　　　A B C D
⑦ They made him monitor of the class.
　　A B C D
⑧ Go across the bridge and you will find the museum on the left.
　　　 A B C D
⑨ You will find it useful after you leave school.
　　　　　　A B C D
⑩ They didn't know who "Father Christmas" really is.
　　A B C D
(四) 挑出下列句中的表语
① The old man was feeling very tired.
　　 A B C D
② Why is he worried about Jim
　　　　A B C D
③ The leaves have turned yellow.
　　 A B C D
④ Soon They all became interested in the subject.
　　　　A B C D
⑤ She was the first to learn about it.
　　　 A B C D
(五) 挑出下列句中的定语
① They use Mr. Mrs. with the family name.
　 A B C D
② What is your given name
　　A B C D
③ On the third lap are Class 1 and Class 3.
　　　　 A B C D
④ I am afraid some people forgot to sweep the floor.
　　　　A B C D
⑤ The man downstairs was trying to sleep.
　　 A B C D
⑥ I am waiting for the sound of the other shoe!
　A B C D
(六) 挑出下列句中的宾语补足语
① She likes the children to read newspapers and books in the reading-room.
A B C D
② He asked her to take the boy out of school.
　　　 A B C D
③ She found it difficult to do the work.
　　　A B C D
④ They call me Lily sometimes.
　　　 A B C D
⑤ I saw Mr. Wang get on the bus.
　A B C D
⑥ Did you see Li Ming playing football on the playground just now
　　　　　　 A B C D
(七) 挑出下列句中的状语
① There was a big smile on her face.
　　A B C D
② Every night he heard the noise upstairs.
　　 A B C D
③ He began to learn English when he was eleven.
　　　 A B C D
④ The man on the motorbike was travelling to fast.
　　 A B C D
⑤ With the medicine box under her arm, Miss Li hurried off.
　　　　　　 A B C D
⑥ She loves the library because she loves books.
　 A B C D
⑦ I am afraid that if you've lost it, you must pay for it.
　A B C D
⑧ The students followed Uncle Wang to see the other machine.
　　　　A B C D
(八) 划出句中的直接宾语和间接宾语
① Please tell us a story.
② My father bought a new bike for me last week.
③ Mr. Li is going to teach us history next term.
④ Here is a pen. Give it to Tom.
⑤ Did he leave any message for me
答案
(一) ① teacher ② man ③ dictionary ④ To do
(二) ① B ② A ③ C ④ A ⑤ C ⑥ C ⑦ D ⑧ C ⑨ A ⑩ A
(三) ① D ② D ③ B ④ A ⑤ B ⑥ D ⑦ C ⑧ D ⑨ A ⑩ D
(四) ①D ②B ③D ④C ⑤B
(五) ① C ② C ③ A ④ B ⑤ B ⑥ D
(六) ① C ② C ③ C ④ C ⑤ D ⑥ B
(七) ① D ② A ③ D ④ D ⑤ A ⑥ D ⑦ C ⑧ D
(八) ① us, 间接宾语 a story, 直接宾语
② me, 间接宾语 a new bike, 直接宾语 ③ us, 间接宾语 history, 直接宾语
④ Tom, 间接宾语 it, 直接宾语 ⑤ me, 间接宾语 message, 直接宾语
能力提升
分析下列句子成分
1. Our school is not far from my home. 2. It is a great pleasure to talk with you
3. The old man lives a lonely life. 4. My grandfather bought me a pair of sports shoes.
5. All of us considered him honest. 6. He made it clear that he would leave the city．
7. Trees turn green when spring comes. 8. At last he got home, tired and hungry.
9. Luckily the 1989 earthquake did not happen in the center of town.
10. The cars made in Japan are better than those in Germany．
11. There are so many people in the hall that it's hard for me to find him．
12. Mr Green, our English teacher, asked us to sing the song in English .
第二节 简单句的五种基本句型
由一个主语（或并列主语）和一个谓语（或并列谓语）所构成的句子叫简单句。根据句子的基本结构，简单句分为5种基本句型：
1．S＋V;（主语 ＋ 不及物动词）
I can swim. 我会游泳。
主语 谓语（不及物动词）
Everything changes. 万物都在变。
主语 谓语
The plane has already arrived. 飞机已经抵达。
主语 谓语
2．S＋V＋O;（主语＋＋及物动词＋宾语）
I like English. 我喜欢英语。
主语 谓语 宾语
They are reading books . 他们在看书。
主语. 谓语 宾语
He bought a computer last week. 他上周买了台电脑。
主语 谓语 宾语
3．S＋V＋P;（主语＋连系动词＋表语）
My mother is a scientist. 我母亲是个科学家。
主语 谓语 表语
She looks young. 她看上去很年轻。
主语 谓语 表语
The food tastes very delicious. 这食物尝起来很香。
主语 谓语 表语
4．S＋V＋IO＋DO;（主语＋及物动词＋间接宾语＋直接宾语）
My mother bought me a dictionary yesterday. 我母亲昨天给我买了本字典。
主语 谓语 间接宾语 直接宾语
Can you give me the math book 你能给我那本数学书吗？
谓语 主语 谓语 间接宾语 直接宾语
Will you tell us something about your school life 你给我讲讲你们的学习生活，好吗？
谓语 主语 谓语 间接宾语 直接宾语
5．S＋V＋O＋Oc;（主语＋及物动词＋宾语＋补语）
We must keep our classroom clean and tidy. 我们必须保持教室干净、整洁。
主语 谓语 宾语 宾语补足语
My mother asks me to speak English as much as possible. 我母亲要求我尽可能多地讲英语。
主语 谓语 宾语 宾语补足语
I heard her singing happily in the room just now. 刚才我听到她在房间里高兴地唱着歌。
主语 谓语 宾语 宾语补足语
简单句五种基本句型巧记歌诀：
英语句子万万千，五大句型把线牵。
句型种类看动词，后接成分是关键。
系词之后接表语，不及物后无需连。
及物又可分三类，单宾双宾最常见。
还有宾语补足语，各种搭配记心间。
巩固练习
指出下列句子的基本类型
1．They are listening.
2．My mother is fifty now.
3．I have bought three books.
4．My friend gave me a birthday present.
5．I painted the wall white.
6．The boss often makes the workers work twelve hours a day.
7．They arrived at six o’clock.
8．The map is on the wall
9．Children often sing this song.
10．Mr Wu teaches us English.
11．She showed her friends all her pictures.
12．I find him a lovely boy.
第三节 简单句的种类
按照句子的功能，简单句可分为4类：陈述句，疑问句，祈使句，和感叹句。
一. 陈述句的构成形式及基本用法
1. 陈述句：
　　 陈述句是用来陈述一个事实或表达说话人看法（包括肯定和否定）的句子。通常用降调，句末用句号“.”。
　　Tom has a new car.
　　The flower isn’t beautiful.
2. 陈述句否定式的构成
　　(1) 如果肯定陈述句的谓语部分含有助动词、情态动词或连系动词be，则只需在这些动词后加not即可构成否定式。
He is playing the guitar.（肯定）
He is not playing the guitar.（否定）
We can get there before dark.（肯定）
We can’t get thee before dark.（否定）
　　(2) 如果陈述句的谓语动词是实义动词，而其中又没有情态动词或助动词时，则需根据人称和时态在该实义动词前加don’t, doesn’t或didn’t。同时把该实义动词变为原形。
He plays the violin well.（肯定）
He doesn’t play the violin well.（否定）
She won the game.（肯定）
She didn’t win the game.（否定）
(3) 如果句子是there be结构或谓语动词是have（有），除了be和have之后加not之外，句中如果有some要变为any。例如：
There is some water in the cup. →There is not any water in the cup.
He has some books. →He has not any books.
(4) 除not以外，否定词no, never, nothing, nobody, few等也可构成否定句。例如：
There is something wrong with his bike. →There is nothing wrong with his bike.
I have seen the film. →I have never seen the film.
二. 祈使句的构成形式及基本用法
祈使句是用来表示命令、请求、建议、号召等的句子，谓语动词用原形，句末用感叹号“！”或句号“.”。朗读时一般用降调。
1. 肯定的祈使句：
（1）祈使句主语是you时，you常省略，但如果要特别强调对方或表达某种强烈的情绪时可以有主语或称呼语。
Be quiet.
You be quiet!
（2）“Do+祈使句”表示一种强烈的感情或请求，do起强调作用。
Do come back at once!
Do be careful.
（3）please用在祈使句中可以表示一种客气的语气，但please用在句末时，必须用逗号与其余部分分开。
Open the window, please.
（4）Let引导祈使句时，后面需跟上人称代词或称呼语，人称代词一般只用第一、第三人称。
Let Jack wait a minute.
Let’s go to school.
（5）在祈使句中，Let’s和 Let us是有区别的。Let’s包括说话者，而Let us不包括听话者在内。这点从反意疑问句时可明显看出。
Let’s go skating, shall we （表示内部的建议）
Let us try again, will you （表示向别人发出请求）
2. 否定祈使句通常以Don’t或Never开头。其结构通常是：“Don’t(Never)+动词原形+其他成分” 例如：
Don’t do that again!
Never leave today’s work for tomorrow!
Don’t be late next time!
三. 一般疑问句、特殊疑问句、选择疑问句、反意疑问句的构成形式及基本用法
1. 一般疑问句：
（1）一般疑问句的肯定形式
一般疑问句一般是指以助动词、情态动词、be动词或have（有）开始，通常要求以yes，或no来回答的疑问句，一般疑问句读时通常用升调。
Do you know Mr. Smith
Can you swim
（2）一般疑问句的否定结构
① 在一般疑问句的否定结构中，把副词not放在一般疑问句的主语之后。但如果用not的简略形式-n’t，则须将-n’t与一般疑问句句首的be, have，助动词或情态动词写在一起。在实际运用中，一般都采用简略式。
Are you not a football fan
Aren’t you a football fan
Will she not like it
Won’t she like it
② 与汉语不同的是，英语一般疑问句否定结构的答语是否定还是肯定，全由答语的否定或肯定来决定。若答语是肯定的，则用yes加肯定结构；若答语是否定的，则用no加否定结构。
Aren’t you a football fan 你不是足球迷吗？
Yes, I am.
No, I am not.
Won’t she like it
Yes, she will.
No, she won’t.
2. 特殊疑问句
特殊疑问句由“疑问代词或疑问副词+一般疑问句”构成，句子一般用倒装语序，但如果主语是疑问代词或由疑问代词修饰时，用陈述句的语序。特殊疑问句不能用yes或no回答，读时用降调。例如：
Who is on duty today
How long have you been in Beijing
What time do you get up every morning
What must I do now
常用的特殊疑问句
询问内容 疑问词或句型 例 句 回 答
职业，身份 what What is your father He is a doctor.
姓名或关系 who Who is that boy He is Jack.
He is my brother
相貌特征 what…like What is she like
What does she look like She is beautiful.
目的 what…for What did they come here for To attend a meeting.
原因 why Why did they come here Because they have a meeting to attend.
天气 how
what…like How is the weather today
What is the weather like today It’s fine.
颜色 what color…？ What dolor is her skirt It’s red.
服装尺寸 what size What size does he wear He wars 40.
几点钟 what time What time is it It’s 7:30.
星期几 what day What day is today It’s Tuesday.
几号，日期 what is the date… What is the date today It’s May 2.
年龄（多大） how old How old is he He is 38.
持续多长时间（多久） how long How long have you been here For five months.
长度（多长） how long How long is the bridge It’s 500 metres.
距离（多远） how far How far is it from here to the zoo It’s 6 kilometres.
频度
（多经常） how often How often do you come back Once a week.
时间经过
（多快） how soon How soon will she arrive In an week.
数量
（多少） how many（可数名词）
how much（不可数名词） How many jackets do you have
How much coffee do you want Three.
Two cups.
价格 how much How much is it
How much does it cost Five dollars.
高度
（多高） how tall（人，树）
how high（山，建筑物） How tall is she
How high is the tower She’s 1.73 metres.
It’s 450 metres.
3. 选择疑问句：
选择疑问句是说话者提出两种或两种以上的不同情况，让对方选择回答的疑问句。其结构是“疑问句+选择部分”。选择部分由or连接，or前面的部分读升调，or后面的部分读降调。
选择疑问句不能用yes或no回答，而必须具体的选择答复。
Is your bag yellow or black It’s black.
Would you like some tea or coffee Either will do.
Which do you like better, singing or dancing I like dancing better.
4. 反意疑问句：
反意疑问句是指在陈述句之后附加一个意思与之相反的简短问句，问对方是否赞同的疑问句。附加问句的否定式必须缩写。
（1）肯定的陈述句后跟否定的附加问句，否定的陈述句后跟肯定的附加问句。
I am your teacher, aren’t I
He didn’t study hard, did he
（2）如果陈述句中含有否定副词never（从不，决不），hardly（几乎不）或其他表示否定代词或形容词，如nothing, none no one, nobody, neither, few, little等，则附加问句只能用肯定式。如：
They hardly write to each other, do they
He has found nothing, has he
Few people knew the secret, did they
（3）当反意疑问句是“否定陈述句+肯定附加问句”时，英语与汉语的回答习惯存在差异。英语回答时只看实际情况，若答语的具体内容是肯定的就用“Yes+肯定结构”，答语的具体内容是否定的就用“No+否定结构”，而译成汉语时，则必须把yes译“不是”，把no译成“是的”。
---You won’t be away for long, will you 你不会离开太久，是吗？
　　 ---Yes, I will.不，我会离开很久。
---No, I won’t.是的，我不会离开很久。
　　 ---I don’t think she’ll come by bike, will she 我认为她不会骑自行车，会吗？
　　 ---Yes, she will.不，她会骑自行车来。
---No, she won’t.是的，她不会骑自行车来。
巩固练习
The teacher had a word with you,_______
A. didn’t he B. hadn’t he C. didn’t have he D. did not he
2. You won’t take back what you said,________
A. didn’t you B. will you C. aren’t you D. were you
3. Let’s go to watch the football match,________
A. do we B. don’t we C. shall we D. will you
4. Your family has no colour TV set,________
A. hasn’t it B. doesn’t it C. is it D. does it
5. Miss Liu doesn’t like dancing, does she ------_________
A. No, she does B. No, she do C. Yes, she does D. Yes, she is
6. There’s something wrong with the radio, ______
A. hasn’t there B. doesn’t there C. isn’t there D. is there
四. 由what, how引导的感叹句的构成形式、用法及区别
　　感叹句是表示喜、怒、哀、乐以及惊异等感情的句子。句末用感叹号“！”，读时用降调，感叹句往往由what或how引导，what修饰名词，how修饰形容词，副词或动词。
1. what引导的感叹句：
　（1）what + a/an +形容词+单数可数名词+陈述句（主语+谓语）
　　　What a beautiful city it is!
　　　What an interesting story she told!
　（2）what+形容词+复数可数名词/不可数名词+陈述句（主语+谓语）
　　　What expensive watches they are!
　　　What terrible weather it is!
2．How引导的感叹句：
　（1）How+形容词/副词+陈述句（主语+谓语）
　　　How cold it is!
　 How hard he works!
　（2）How+陈述句（主语+谓语）
　　　How he loves his son!　　　
How I miss you!
　（3）How+形容词+a/an+单数可数名词+陈述句（主语+谓语）
　　　How tall a tree it is!
（4）上述两种感叹句可以互相转换。例如：
What a clever boy he is!→How clever the boy is!
What a cold day it is!→How cold it is!
巩固练习
1．_______clever boy he is!
A. How B. What C. How a D. What a
2．_______beautiful the Daming Lake looks!
A. What a B. How C. What D. How a
3．_______ wonderful film it is !
A. What B. How C. What a D. So
4．_______ happy life we are living today !
A. What B. What a C. How D. How a
5．________all these dustmen are working!
A. How hard B. What hard C. How hardly D. What hardly
能力提升
I. 指出下列句子的种类。
1. I’m from London.
2. Don’t speak to me now.
3. Lucy likes bananas.
4. Do you like cooking
5. What about you？
6．Is it Lucy or Lily？
7. Nice to meet you!
8. This way, please.
9. He doesn’t work on a farm.
10. What a fine day it is!
II. 单项选择
1. ---Excuse me, _______ is the nearest bookshop
---Go down the street and turn left at the second corner.
A. how B. what C. where D. who
2. ---______ is it from our school to the Bell Tower
---About half an hour’s bus ride. Shall we go and visit it
A. How long B. How often C. How far D. How much
3. ---Linda had nothing for breakfast this morning, _______
---No. She got up too late.
A. had she B. hadn’t she C. did she D. didn’t she
4. ---The room is so dirty. ______ we clean it
---Of course.
A. Will B. Would C. Do D. Shall
5. ---__________, sir
---Size 41, I think
A. What size do you need B. What can I do for you
C. How do you like this shirt D. What’s the matter with you
6. ---_______ good weather! Why not go out for a walk
A. What B. How C. What a D. How a
7. ---It’s a nice car. ______ have you been in it
---Just to Shanghai.
A. How much B. How long C. How soon D. How far
8. ---_______ to the United States
---No, never, but I went to Canada a few years ago.
A. Have you been B. Have you gone
C. Did you go D. Will you go
9. ---_______ were you away from school last year
---About two weeks.
A. How often B. How soon C. How long D. When
10. ---______ do you want
---I want a CD of popular songs.
A. Which CD B. How many CDs
C. What CD D. How much
11. _______ is your mother, a teacher or a doctor
A. What B. Which C. Who D. whose
12. ---______ is your mother today, Jim
---She is much better.
A. How B. What C. Where D. How old
13. ---______he ______ at this school last term
---Yes, I think so.
A. Did…study B. Does…study
C. Was…study D. Did…studied
14. ---_______ did you begin to learn English
---Three years ago.
A. When B. Why C. Where D. What
15. ---________ do you write to your pen-friend
---Once a week.
A. How long B. How soon C. How far D. How often
16. _______ nice flowers! Where did you pick them
A. How B. What C. What a D. How a
17. The sick man’s allowed to take a walk in the garden every day, _______
A. is he B. isn’t he C. has he D. hasn’t he
18. ______ cross the road before the traffic lights turn green.
A. Not B. Won’t C. Don’t D. Doesn’t
19. He found nothing in the room, _________
A. doesn’t he B. does he
C. didn’t he D. did he
20. You haven’t changed your mind, ________
A. do you B. are you
C. have you D. did you
【练习答案】
1.C 2.C 3.C 4.D 5.A 6.A 7.D 8.A 9.C 10.C 11.A 12.A 13.A 14.A 15.D 16.B 17.B 18.C 19.D 20.C第三章 词汇
英语是一种历史悠久、词汇量丰富、词义纷繁、语法简练，使用灵活的语言。现代英语的词汇总量达到200万，是世界词汇量最大的语言。而且随着时代的不断变迁，英语的词汇量不断更新、扩大。因此，学好英语，词汇的学习是必不可少的。
一、词汇在英语教学中的重要性
　　词汇在个人的语言能力发展中起着重要的作用，词汇量的大小直接影响听、说、读、写等各项语言能力的发展。词汇是语言的基本组成部分，离开了词汇，语言就失去了实际意义。如果词汇贫乏，词义模糊，就会造成表达障碍和理解困难。Without grammar very little can be conveyed， without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.即没有语法表达的内容很少;而没有词汇，则什么都表达不了。可见，一个人掌握词汇的多少直接影响他的语言表达能力;影响他思想表达的准确和丰富的程度。从这个意义上来讲，词汇在个人的语言能力发展中起着举足轻重的作用。
　　因此，要促进听、说、读、写技能和综合运用英语能力的提高，词汇是基础，在英语学习中有着不可忽视的重要作用。
二、英语词汇的特点
　　1、要求词汇量大。
　　《新课程标准》提出，初中学生在五级(毕业时)须学会使用1500—1600个单词和200—300个习语;高中学生在七级(毕业时)须会2400—2500个单词和300—400个习语;而八、九级(高考用)则须达到3500--4500个单词和400—500个习语。这与现行《中学英语教学大纲》的要求相比较，无疑是较高的。
　　2、词汇含义丰富。
　　一词多义、一词多用，随处可见。如“spring”作名词时，既可指“春天”，又有“泉水”、“弹簧”、“弹力”等意;作动词时，还可指“跳出”、“萌芽”、“发动”等意。另外在不同的上下文与使用场合中，词的含义也不同，如“green”除基本意“绿色”外，还在“She is a green hand.”中，意为“生手，没有经验的人”;在“I am green with envy.”中，意为“妒忌的”等等。更不用说繁多的习语、俚语了。
　　3、词汇变化快。
　　随着时代的发展与社会的变迁，与之紧密相关的词汇也在发生着变化。.一方面旧词被赋予了新的含义，如原意为“凉爽的”cool，现被引申为“酷”，意为“有品位”、“新潮前卫”、“另类”等;另一方面每年大量的新生词汇层出不穷，如“empty suit(坏老板)”、“staycation(宅度假)”等等。
　　4、词汇遗忘率高。
　　掌握单词的主要途径是依靠记忆。然而，从心理学的角度来说，任何记忆过的东西在没有达到牢固记忆状态之下，如果不能够做到适时的复习，都会有被完全遗忘的可能。因此所学单词如果没有多次重复，就很容易被遗忘。加之记忆、复习单词的过程枯燥乏味，所以单词成了学生的第一大难关。
　　鉴于英语词汇的这些特点，我们应认识到词汇是学会而不是教会的，要根据自己的心理和认知特点，有效学习和掌握词汇。
三、怎样快速牢固地记忆单词呢？
1：快速多次。被单词时不要一次在某一单词上花费大量的时间太多，一定要每次都大量的背。它可以使单词的意思牢牢地在同学们的头脑中生根，不易遗忘。只有快速，才能多次。只有多次，才能记住。有的同学会问：“背多遍会不会浪费时间呢？”实际上，一本单词书背第一遍的时候，可能需要一个月，而第二偏的时候，由于一部分单词已经背会，不会的单词也有印象，可能十来天就背完了。第三遍也许5天时间就可以完成。因为只背一遍对单词的印象是不太深刻的，那么遗忘的速度和遗忘率都会很高，不如多背几遍，省时省力还踏时。
2：注意单词之间的联系。当然，可能刚开始时能建立联系的单词很少，但要注意培养这种意识，争取一串串地背单词看见一个就能想起一串。比如：同义的，反义的，形近的，同根的，同类的单词防在一块儿记。
3：将认识的和不认识的词分类。大家在背单词时，在书上将不认识的词用特殊的记号标出，这样，将主要精力集中于不认识的词，可以大大节省时间，缓解压力。
4：脑，眼，口手并用。背单词不是看小说，应该找一个安静的地方，抛开一切杂念。译本书，一叠纸，一张嘴，脑中想着这个单词，眼里看着它，嘴里念着它，用笔在纸上写着这个单词，这样才能加强对这个原来根本不认识的单词的印象，去得好的记忆效果。
5：记得模糊一些。背单词的时候是不是要把单词的所有的意思和用法都记得很请清楚楚呢？回答是否定的对大多数单词，只要知道它的大概意思就可以了，就不会对阅读和做题产生影响。只有极少数的核心词汇，才需要不仅了解它的意思，还要了解它的用法。
6：经常复习。经常拿出一部分时间将一些模糊的单词背一遍，牢记“重复是记忆之母”。
附：初高中衔接重点词汇：
ability n..
abroad a.& ad.
absent a.
accent n.
accept v.
ache n.
achieve v.
advertisement n.
advise v.
agreement n.
airline n.
among prep.
ancient a.
ant n.
anyway ad.
appear v.
army n.
Atlantic n. & a.
attention n.
available a.
avoid v.
background n.
balloon n.
bamboo n.
basic a.
bee n.
beyond prep
biscuit n.
bitter a.
blood n.
blow(blew， blown) v.
boss n.
bottom n.
brain n.
breath n.
burn(-ed， ed / burnt， burnt) v.
butterfly n.
cancel v.
CO-ROM n.
ceiling n.
chairman / woman n.
chalk n./v
chant n.
cheat v.
cheer n/v
chest n.
choice n
circle n./v
clap n/v
clone v
coach n.
coal n.
coast n.
communicate v.
communication n.
complete a/v
composition n.
condition n.
conference n.
consider v.
continue v.
control v.
cooker n.
couple n.
courage n.
course n.
crayon n.
create v，
cruel a.
culture n.
daily n.
dare v
degree v.
development n.
difficulty n.
dig(dug dug )
direct a/v
director n.
discover v.
discussion n.
dismiss v.
disturb v
divide v.
double n.
doubt v.
dozen n.
drug .
edge n.
effort n.
elder n.
enemy n.
energy n.
examine v.
excite v.
expect v.
experiment n.
express v.
fair a.
fetch v.
fill v.
final a.
fisherman n.
flag n.
flat n.
flu n.
fork n.
forward ad.
freeze (froze ，frozen)
fresh a.
frog n.
general a.
gentleman n
gesture n
goat n
god n
golden n
goose (pl. geese) n
government n
granny n
greeting n
guard n
guest n
gun n
ham n
handsome a
handwriting n
heaven n
honest a
honour n/v
hotdog n
humorous a
immediately ad
inch n
increase v/n
industry n
influence v
ink n
insist v
intention n
introduce v
introduction n
iron n
joy n
kick v/n
kiss v/n
labour n
lamb n
lamp n
law n
lead (led， led )
lemonade n
lend (lent， lent )
level n
lively a
lonely a
manage v
mark n/v
marriage n.
master v/n
medical a
member n
metal n/a
method n
might v
mirror n
motorcycle n
none pron
notice v
object v
ocean n
offer v
officer n
operation n
overcoat n
Pacific n/a
package n
pale a
passage n
passport n
path n
peace n
pence n
penny n
percent n
period n
pity n
plain a/n
planet n
poem n
point v/n
policy n
pond n
position n
praise n/v
prepare v
prevent v
pride n
print v
prison n
prisoner n
private a
produce v
promise v/n
pronounce v
pronunciation n
proper a
protect v
prove v
provide v
punish v
queen n
rapid a
real a
realise (AM realize )v
recite v
recorder n
regard v
regret v/n
relation n
remain v
repeat v
require v
research n
retell v
riddle n
rise (rose ， risen) v
risk n
role n
rope n
rubber n
rush v
rule v/n
sail n/v
sand n
satisfy v
sausage n
score n/v
search v/n
secretary n
seldom ad
separate v
sense n
servant n
serve v
set (set， set )
shake (shook， shaken)
shame n
share v
shelf (pl. shelves) n
shoulder n
shut (shut， shut ) v
silk n
silly a
silver n
similar a
single a
smooth a
social a
soft a
solid a/n
sort v/n
sour a
spare a
spirit n
spread v
stairs n
standard a/n
state n
steal v
stone n
stream n
stupid a
succeed v
supply v
suppose v
surface n
swing n
symbol n
tale n
tent n
thick a
thread n
tidy a/v
tiny a/v
ton n
tongue n
toothpaste n
total a/n
touch v/n
towel n
tower n
trade n
translate v
treasure n
treatment n
truth n
unless conj
upon prep
value n
vehicle n
victory n
wake v
warn v
wealth n
weigh v
weight n
whale n
whatever pron
wheat n
wide a
wing n
wise a
wolf n
wonder v
wood n
worth a
wound v/n
X-ray n
zebra n