2023届高考英语复习：英语语法规则总结
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| 名称 | 2023届高考英语复习：英语语法规则总结 |  | |
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| 更新时间 | 2022-11-23 20:49:31 | ||
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PAGE
8
语 法 要 点
英语语法要点
五种基本句型
英语中的任何句子都可以归入以下五种句型：
1. 主语 + 谓语
·The baby cried. 孩子哭了。
·The machine doesn’t work well. 这台机器运转不好。
2. 主语 + 谓语 + 宾语
·Mary studied English very hard. 马丽刻苦学习英语。
3. 主语 + 谓语 + 间接宾语 + 直接宾语
·My father bought me a bike as my birthday present.
父亲给我买了一辆自行车作为生日礼物。
4. 主语 + 谓语 + 宾语 + 宾语补足语
·We always find her happy. 我们总是见她乐呵呵的。
5. 主语 + 系动词 + 表语
·He was a worker in a small factory at that time. 当时他还只是一家小厂的工人。
倒装
以下6种情形需要倒装：
（一）否定词在句首
no, at no time; in no way, by no means, on no account, in no case,
under no circumstances,
no longer, no less, no more, no sooner…than; never, seldom, little, even less,
not, not until, nowhere, neither, nor, not once, not only…but also;
at hardly any place, hardly…when, scarcely...when, barely, rarely, in vain
（二）ONLY在句首，作状语修饰副词、介词短语或从句：
only, only then, only at that time, only once…;
only in this way, only with…, only through…, only by…;
only when…, only after…, only because…
·Only under special circumstances are freshmen permitted to take make-up tests. (四级题：97.6/43)
☆但如only修饰名词则不倒装。
（加例句）
（三）连词SO在句首
（四）程度副词SO在句首
（五）表示让步的AS，当as引导让步状语从句，当“虽然”讲时，从句中的状语或表语要放在as前：
·Much as I admire David as a poet, I do not like him as a man. (四级题：04.1/48)
·Much as he likes her, he does get irritated with her sometimes. (考研题：92/9,四级题：00.6/49)
（六）其他
1. 以such或短语开头的句子：
to such a degree, to such an extent, to such extremes, to such a point
以上的各种情形均要求部分倒装
2. 以某些表示方向、位置的副词开头的句子，主谓要全部颠倒（一般不考）：
here, there, out, in, down, up, away…
（加例句）
二、虚拟语气
虚拟语气是一般考试中出现频率较最高的语法现象。
按谓语动词的形式可将虚拟语气分为四大类：
IF式、SUGGEST式、WISH式和过去式
（一）IF式，要点：回移一时态。
指在条件从句与结果主句中的谓语动词形式：
从句: 1.与现在事实相反,用一般过去时；2.与过去事实相反, 用过去完成时；
·牢记主从句的常规搭配形式：
从句谓语动词形式 主句谓语动词形式
与现在事实相反 did/were(不分人称) would/could/might + do/be
与过去事实相反 had done/been would/could/might + have done/been
与将来事实相反 did/were to do/should do would/could/might/+ do/be
☆注意事项：
1. if条件句中如有were, should, had,可以省去if，并使用倒装语序。
·If Karl, instead of writing a lot about capital, had made a lot of it, it would have been much better. — Karl Marx ( http: / / www.famous- / asp / acategories.asp Author=Karl+Marx )’s Mother
·The millions of calculations involves, had they been done by hand, would have lost all practical value by the time they were finished. (四级题：01.6/33)
·Countless divorced politicians would have been elected out of office years ago had they even thought of a divorce, let alone gotten one. (考研题：00/10)
2. if条件句中的谓语动词如果是be, 其过去形式一般用were。
3. but for sth, without sth可用来引导让步假设和转折假设，相当于一个条件句, 句子谓语用虚拟语气，与If it were not for sth (were it not for sth); If it had not been for sth (had it not been for sth) 类似：
·But for the help of their group, we would not have succeeded in the investigation. (四级题：02.12/47)
·Without the friction between their feet and the ground, people would in no way be able to walk. (考研题：96/31)
5. but, unfortunately后是真实情况，另一句用虚拟语气(一般在前面)：
·Some women could have made a great salary in a job instead of staying home, but they decided not to work for the sake of the family. (四级题：00.1/70)
·I would have gone to visit him in the hospital had it been at all possible, but I was fully occupied the whole of last week. (考研题：97/4)
6. otherwise, or else后有时用虚拟语气 ：
·He said that the driver must have had an accident; otherwise he would have arrived by then. (四级题：02.12/56)
·Mary couldn’t have received my letter; otherwise she should have replied by now. (考研题：91/17)
7. 混合虚拟，也叫错综时间条件句，主句与从句时态不一致：
·If I had worked harder at school, I would be sitting in a comfortable office now. (四级题：02.12/35)
·Had Paul received six more votes in the last election, he would be our chairman now. (考研题：92/24)
（二）SUGGEST式，要点：(should +) 动词原形。
指各种从句（主语、宾语、同位语以及状语）的谓语，不管主句的时态如何，从句都是(should +) 动词原形，有should为英式用法，不加为美式用法，考托福时要注意。这类虚拟语气的句子形式为以下五种：
A. 主语 + suggest (等表示“要求”类的动词) + that 主语+ (should) do/be
B. It be + suggested (等过去分词) + that 主语 + (should) do/be
C. It be + necessary (等形容词) + that 主语 + (should) do/be
D. It be + (my) suggestion (等名词) + that 主语 + (should) + do/be
E. …lest等连词+ 主语 + (should) + do/be
☆上面的A类为宾语从句，B、C为主语从句，D为同位语从句，E为状语从句。
1. 对应以上A、B类表示坚持、命令、意愿、建议的常用动词有：
suggestcommand prefer propose move(提名)maintain requirerequestrecommend askadvisearrange direct desiredemand insistorderurge
(还有几个: agree, decide, stipulate, vote，不过，这几个动词各种考试都未考过，maintain也从未考过。)
☆为了记住表中的18个动词，我“发明”了下面的办法（专利就不申请了），从上向下看这些词的首字母可变为下面的几个缩略词：
SC 2PM 3RAD IOU
SC=the Supreme Court(美国)最高法院; PM=下午; rad=radical激进分子; IOU=I owe you...借据，欠条。
这样以上不相干的几个词的意思可理解为：
美国最高法院在下午两点(审理了)三个激进分子的借条一案。
希望你能看出此句的滑稽、荒唐之处，笑过之后记住这些动词，它们的名词也就容易记住了。
·Mike’s uncle insists that he not stay in this hotel. (四级题：00.1/52)
·As Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, I have directed (命令) that all measures be taken for our defence. (四级题：99.6/62)
☆注意：当insist表示“坚持认为”、suggest表示“表明,显示”时，不用虚拟语气。
·The look on his face suggested that he was quite satisfied with what I had done for him.
2. 对应以上C类的形容词有：
preferableproper advisableappropriate naturalnecessary imperativeimportantincredible criticaldesirableessentialfitting strangeurgentvital
2PAN 3I CDEF SUV
[恕我愚笨，这些词我想不出怎么记忆了，请大家自己发挥吧。]
·I don’t think it advisable that Tim be assigned to the job since he has no experience. (四级题：97.6/55)
·It is vital that enough money be collected to fund the project. (四级题：97.1/45),
·The board deemed it urgent that these files should be printed right away. (考研题：93/1)
3. 对应以上D类的名词有 (多半都是A类动词变化而成, 不难记忆)：
motionadvicecommand decisiondemand requestrequire-ment importanceinsistence prefer-enceproposal suggestionnecessityorder
M AC SON 2DRIP
·Many a delegate was in favour of his proposal that a special committee be set up to investigate the incident. (四级题：02.1/47)
4. 对应以上E类的连词有：
lest, for fear that, in case
·While crossing the mountain area, all the men carried guns lest they should be attacked by wild animals. (四级题：02.12/38)
☆还有一个连词in case (以防，以免)，后面用真实语气也可以：
·I was advised to arrange for insurance in case I needed medical treatment. (四级题：99.1/65)
（三）WISH式，要点：回移一时态。
指wish等词后的宾语从句中，以及由if only等引起的状语从句中的谓语形式：
1. 与现在/将来事实相反，用一般过去时；
2. 与过去事实相反，用过去完成时。
☆注意:与哪个事实相反,不能以主句的时态为判断依据,而是根据从句的意义判断。
A. wish类的词有:would rather,would sooner, had rather, would as soon等；
B. if only类的连词有：as if, as though等。
1) WISH希望:
·Jack wishes that he had studied business instead of history when he was in university. (Cf:00.1/58) (四级题：01.6/50)
2) WOULD RATHER宁愿，宁可，95年以来考过7次,都是与现在事实相反:
·Who would you rather went with you, George or me (四级题：02.6/55)
3) IF ONLY要是，只要；要是…多好/就好了:
·If only the committee would approve the regulations and put them into effect as soon as possible. (四级题：97.1/47)
·The senior librarian at the circulation desk promised to get the book for me if only she could remember who last borrowed it. (考研题：96/3)
·Look at the terrible situation I am in! If only I had followed your advice. (四级题：93.6/70)
（四）过去式，因为谓语动词形式只是一种：过去时态，句式为：
It is time that + 主语 + 动词过去式；
It is about / high /getting time 主语 + 动词过去式。
·It is high time that such practices were ended. (四级题：02.12/58)
☆注意：有的语法书中说It’s time…后面可用(should +) do/be，但考试中测试的都是过去式，特别是托福考试，如没有过去式的形式时再选用 (should +) do/be形式。
三、非谓语动词
[（一）概述 （二）分词 （三）动名词 （四）不定式 （五）其他］
（一）概述
1. 分词
1）分词有现在分词和过去分词两类：
现在分词表示主动或进行的概念（即施动或正发生）
过去分词表示被动或完成的概念（即受动或已做完）
以上概念必须在头脑中牢牢地建立起来，为了方便记忆可用下面12个字表达
(近似一副对联)：
●现在主动发出 (“现在”表示“现在分词”)
●过去被动接受 (“过去”表示“过去分词”)
2）上面说的是及物动词，
☆而不及物动词的过去分词只表示完成，不能表示被动，
同为“落叶”，译成英语却是两样：
falling leaves（叶子在空中）； fallen leaves（叶子在地上）
3）分词除了与助动词连用构成时态和语态外，还可独立用，起形容词和副词的作用。
4）分词充当的句子成分与形容词和副词相同：表、定、状、宾补。
2. 动名词
1) 动名词与现在分词同形，和分词一样具有动词的某些特点（如有自己的宾语或状语），又在句中起名词的作用，因此叫“动名词”。
2) 动名词充当的句子成分与名词相同：主、宾、表、定。
3. 现在分词和动名词都有以下几种形式：
主动形式 被动形式
一般式 doing being done
完成式 having done having been done
4. 不定式可充当谓语外的各种句子成分，不定式有以下几种形式：
主动形式 被动形式
一般式 to do to be done
完成式 to have done to have been done
进行式 to be doing ——
完成进行式 to have been doing ——
5. 以上三种非谓语动词形式，其
主动形式就表示发出动作（施动）；
被动形式则表示接受动作（受动）。
6. 非谓语动词的完成式表示的动作先于谓语动词
·There was sign that Mr. Jospin, who keeps a firm control on the party despite having resigned from leadership of it, would intervene personally. (考研题：01/5)
·There seemed little hope that the explorer, having been deserted in the tropical forest, would find his was through it. (考研题：92/30)
7.
单个分词或动名词作定语可以前置； 分词、动名词的短语作定语必须后置。
不定式及其短语作定语也必须后置； 另外，其他类短语作定语也必须后置。
8. 非谓语动词的否定形式一律是not在前
9. there be的非谓语动词，有两种形式：
there to be 和there being
☆这个语法点是原来考研出的题，现在四级也考过了几回，目前市面上出售的四级模拟题里都没有，高考当然是不会考的。
·No one had told Smith about there being a lecture the following day. (四级题：01.1/66)
·For there to be successful communication, there must be attentiveness and involvement in the discussion itself by all present. (考研题：96/8)
（二）分词
1. 逗号一般不能连接两个并列分句, 以下面的句子为例记住这条原则：
·Beethoven, the great musician, wrote nine symphonies in his life, most of them were written after he had lost his hearing. (考研题: 93/65)（伟大的作曲家贝多芬一生写了九部交响曲，其中大部分是失聪后写的）
☆原题是改错题, 这个句子很典型，容易记，内容也好。原句乍看好像没什么错误，其实有问题，就是违反了上述原则，按原句要求，只能改第二处, 如不标出这样的句子还可以有几种改法：
A) 逗号变句号，大写, 如上句可变为：...his life. Most... 也就是说这句话“听”起来没错,“读”时有错；
B) 改为定语从句，如上句可变为：...his life, most of which were written...；
C) 变成独立主格，作状语,如上句可变为：...his life, most of them written... 即谓语变成非谓语；
D) 加并列连词，如上句可变为：...his life, and most of them were written... 也说得通；
E) 逗号变分号，还是并列句；
F) 加从属连词，变成从句。
这条规则在写作时也要特别注意
2. 独立主格作状语 (独立主格也称独立结构)
·All the tasks having been fulfilled ahead of time, they decided to go on holiday for a week . (四级题：01.6/56)
·All flights having been canceled because of the terrible weather, they had to go there by train. (四级题：02.1/67)
3. with + 宾语 + 分词(作宾补)
·After the Arab states won independence, great emphasis was laid on expanding education, with girls as well as boys being encouraged to go to school. (四级题：97.1/26)
·With the temperature falling so rapidly, we couldn’t go on with the experiment.
·The sale usually takes place outside the house, with the audience seated on benches, chairs or boxes. (四级题：00.1/46)
☆seat愿意是“使…坐下”，也就是观众“接受”这个动作。
4. leave sb + 分词(作宾补)使…如何：
·His remarks left me wondering about his real purpose. (四级题：99.6/45)
·Operations which left patients exhausted and in need of long periods of recovery time now leave them feeling relaxed and comfortable. (四级题：01.1/67)
5. 主语补足语：
·The lost car of the Lees was found abandoned in the woods off the highway. (考研题：91/21)
6. 状语
·Judged the best in a recent science competition, the three students were awarded scholarships totaling $21,000. (四级题01.1/46)
7. 定语
·The energy released by the chain reaction is transformed into heat. (四级题：02.6/68)
（三）动名词
1. 下列动词后用动名词作宾语：
acknowledgeadmitadvocateanticipateappreciate avoid endureenjoyescapeexcuse fancyfavourfinishforgive
delaydenydislike imagineincludeinvolve mentionmindmisssuggest pardonpostponepractise recallresentresistrisk quitunderstandjustifyconsiderkeep
☆以上单词的第一个字母连起来可以变成以下的形式：
6A 4REF 3DIMP S QUJCK
2. 下列动词短语也常接动名词：
approve of, be capable of, give up, keep on, put off
3. 注意下列后接动名词的习惯用法：
1) It’s no use/good/fun/picnic doing…
2) There is no use/point/sense/harm (in) doing…
3) There is no doing (telling, gainsaying)…
4) have difficulty/trouble/problem doing…
5) have a good/wonderful/hard/difficult time doing…
6) spend (time) doing…; waste (time) doing…
7) be busy doing…, keep…busy doing, be worth doing…
8) feel like doing…
9) can’t help/stand doing…
4. 下列动词、介词后接动名词具有主动形式、被动含义, 注意不要再用动名词的被动式：
1) sth be worth/past/beyond doing 比较：It’s worthwhile doing sth
2) sth need/want/require/demand/bear/deserve doing
·The machine needs a complete mending since it has been in use for over ten years. (考研题：98/21)
5. 作主语
·Reviewing their work will give us a much better feel for the wide differences between the two schools of thought. (四级题：02.6/69)
（四）不定式
1. 不定式的完成式一般作主语补足语：
·The Egyptians are supposed to have sent rockets to the moon. (四级题：96.6/37)
·The bank is reported in the local newspaper to have been robbed in broad daylight yesterday. (考研题：92/20; 四级题：01.1/63)
2. 不定式的一般式作主语补足语：
·As a public relations officer, he is said to know some very influential people. (四级题：01.6/34)
3. 不定式表示结果：
·Greatly agitated, I rushed to the apartment and tried the door, only to find it locked. (考研题：00/2)
4. be to do表示安排、命令、职责、义务、目的、用途、可能性、命中注定等：
·Greater efforts to increase agricultural production must be made if food shortage is to be avoided. (考研题：98/5)
·They were never to meet again.(陆谷孙：英汉大词典)
5. 疑问词wh- + to do, 相当于一个名词短语：
·California has more light than it knows what to do with but everything else is expensive. (考研题：99/7)
6. 下列动词后常用不定式作宾语：
afford, agree, arrange, attempt, claim, decide, determine, expect, fail, hope, intend, manage, mean, offer, plan, pretend, promise, refuse, tend
7. mean to do打算做某事：
·There’s man at the reception desk who seems very angry and I think he means to make trouble. (四级题：97.1/25)
8. 下列习惯用语中都带有but, 后面都接不带to的不定式：
cannot help but do…; cannot but do…
can do nothing but do…; cannot choose but do…
cannot do anything but do…
（加例句）
但：have no choice but to do…; have no alternative but to do …
·That was so serious a matter that I had no choice but to call in the police. (四级题：96.1/24)
9. 以下两个带rather的结构后也用动词原形：
would rather do than do; prefer to do rather than do
·I’d rather have a room of my own, however small it is, than share a room with someone else. (四级题：01.1/55)
10. The professor can hardly find sufficient grounds on which to base his argument in favour of the new theory. (考研题：95/3；四级题：00.6/36)
☆上句中的to base his argument相当于he bases his argument。
（五）其他
1.
forget to do sth 忘记了要去做某事； forget doing sth 忘记已做了某事；
remember to do sth 记住要去做某事；remember doing sth. 记得曾做过某事。
☆以上两组的不定式的动作均未发生，动名词的动作已发生。
·I’ll never forget meeting you for the first time. (四级题：01.1/43)
·If I had remembered to close the window, the thief would not have got in. (四级题：96.1/40)
·I remember him once offering to help us if we ever got into trouble.(四级题：93.6/62)
2. mean to do sth 打算做某事；mean doing 意味着…；
try to do sth 试图去做某事；try doing sth 试试某种方法。
·I didn’t mean to take a taxi but I had to as I was late. (四级题：01.1/53)
·There’s man at the reception desk who seems very angry and I think he means to make trouble. (四级题：97.1/25)
(加例句)
☆以上两组的不定式的动作均未发生，动名词的动作已发生。
3.
regret to tell sb that…
regret to inform sb. that...
regret to say/announce that…（加说明）遗憾地告诉/通知某人…
regret doing sth 对已做的事表示后悔、遗憾
4.
stop to do sth 停下去做别的事 (不定式为目的状语)
stop doing sth 停下在做的某事 (动名词为宾语)
四、连接词
写成连接词不是笔误，因为下面所说的有些不是真正的连词。
1. 下列副词和名词词组可以起连接词作用：
1) the instant/moment/minute (that), directly, instantly这些都相当于as soon as，如：
·We hadn’t met for 20 years, but I recognized her the moment I saw her. (四级题：01.6/44)
·You see the lightning the instant it happens, but you hear the thunder later. (四级题：97.1/38)
2) each/every time, the first time, last/next time
·The policeman went into action directly they heard the alarm. (考研题：91/20)
2. when表示“突然，意外”等：
·I was half way back to the village where my mother lived when Susan caught up with me. (四级题：01.1/68)
·I had just started back for the house to change my clothes when I heard voices. (四级题：97.6/44)
·I felt somewhat disappointed and was about to leave, when something occurred which attracted my attention. (四级题：96.1/45)
·On a rainy day I was driving north through Vermont when I noticed a young man holding up a sign reading “Boston”. (考研题：00/5)
3. what = the thing(s) which, all that或that that
也就是相当于两个句子成分，既在主句中充当成分，也在从句中充当成分：
·But they never altered their incorrect mental models of planetary motion because their everyday observations didn’t support what their teachers told them. (四级题完型部分：00.1/79)
·Professor Lee’s book will show you how what you have observed can be used in other contexts. (考研题：93/6)
·Water will continue to be what it is today — next in importance to oxygen. (考研题：92/23)
☆以下两句中的黑体字都相当于一个what：
·These people once had fame and fortune. Now all that is left to them is utter poverty. (四级题：02.6/61)
·All that is needed is a continuous supply of the basic necessities of life. (四级题：90.1/46)
4. There is no rule but has exceptions. (but = which…not) 规律皆有例外。(谚语)
Nobody knew him but respected him. (but = who…not) 认识他的人无不尊敬他。(陆谷孙：英汉大词典)
5. 下列连接词语不要混淆：
that——which as far as——as long as such…as——such…that
who——whom so far as——so long as unless——if
·I will give the dictionary to whoever wants to have it. (考研题：92/1)
·They always give the vacant seats to whoever comes first. (四级题：02.12/51)
·We agreed to accept whoever they thought was the best tourist guide. (四级题：00.1/53)
☆以上三句中的whoever既作主句的宾语，还作从句的主语，所以不能用whomever。
·He will surely finish the job on time so long as he’s left to do it in his own way. (四级题：01.1/61)
·So long as he works hard, I don’t mind when he finishes the experiment. (四级题：98.1/35)
·Conversation becomes weaker in a society that spends so much time listening and being talked to that it has all but lost the will and the skill to speak for itself. (考研题：01/9)
·Most children with healthy appetites are ready to eat almost anything that is offered them and a child rarely dislikes food unless it is badly cooked. (四级题完型部分：97.6/61)
☆unless一词本身具有否定意义, 相当于if…not…。
6. in case以防，以免：
·I was advised to arrange for insurance in case I needed medical treatment. (四级题：99.1/65)
7. 其他：
·For the new country to survive, let alone (=to say nothing of更不用说) for its people to enjoy prosperity, new economic policies will be required. (考研题：97/38)
·You can arrive in Beijing earlier for the meeting provided (=providing=on condition that) you don’t mind taking the night train. (考研题：93/19)
·The engineers are going through with their highway project, even though the expenses have risen. (考研题：93/21)
·Dress warmly, or else you’ll catch cold. (or = or else = otherwise考研题：91/22)
五、名词
考察名词主要涉及名词分别与介词、动词以及形容词的搭配，还有冠词用法、单复数，以及意义辨析等。
1. all of 后面接不可数名词时，名词前须有定冠词。
2. 单数可数名词前必须有定冠词或不定冠词（例外不多，如man 表示人类）。
3. 名词只能受形容词修饰,名词只能修饰名词
4. 名词的句子成分为主、宾、表、定、宾补
六、副词
1. 考副词时会涉及到动词与副词的搭配、副词与形容词的搭配。
2.. that = so
3. far too + adj/adv = much too + adj/adv 实在太…
4.
enough修饰形容词、副词时，必须后置
enough作形容词修饰名词时前后置均可
·You cannot be ______ careful when you drive a car. (四级题：97.6/32)
A) very B) so C) too D) enough
此题该选C项。如果题目是这样：
You cannot be careful ______ when you drive a car. 则该选D项。
6. 副词可修饰动词、形容词和副词本身
7. 副词的句子成分多为状语，也作表语
七、形容词
1. 考形容词时会涉及形容词与名词、形容词与介词的搭配等.
2. Americans eat twice as much protein as they actually need every day. (98.6/56)
如果是可数名词则为：倍数 + as many as。
3.下列形容词没有比较级形式, 表示比较时后面用to, 不用than：
superiorinferior majorminor seniorjunior priorpreferable
·This watch is superior to all the other watches on the market. (考研题：91/14)
·Their products are frequently overpriced and inferior in quality. (四级题：02.6/59)
4. Sb be familiar with sth; Sth be familiar to sb; 不要与similar to混淆。
5. likely与possible 前者可用人作主语，也可是非人称主语，而后者一般不用人作主语，通常是：
It be possible (for sb) to do sth.
Sb be likely to do.
·I think the Red Team will win the final game; it’s very likely that they will. (92.6/49),
6. 如有多个词同时修饰某个名词，这些词的顺序安排规则是：
限定词+序数词+基数词/量词+特性/描述词+形状/大小/长宽/高低/温度+年龄/新旧+颜色+来源/出处/国籍+制造材料+用途/类别+名词。
☆为了方便记忆，可利用一个杜撰词，
opshacom/f
其中op=opinion(如: beautiful, valuable), sha=shape(包括长度,宽度,高度,大小),a=age, co=colour, o=origin, m=material, f=function, 该词最后一个f不要一般也够了, 如：
a very valuable small round old brown French oak writing desk
[当然生活中这样说的人不多，否则会让人怀疑脑子有问题，搞笑除外。]
7. 注意下列受副词修饰的形容词的位置：
so/as/too/how/however + 形容词 + a + 单数可数名词，如：too large a room；
such/what/quite/rather + a + 形容词 + 单数可数名词，如：quite a large room
8. 注意下列名词加-ly结尾的词是形容词：
costly, friendly, leisurely, lonely, likely, brotherly, monthly等。
9. 有些以字母 a- 开始的形容词通常只作表语，不作定语，如：afraid, afloat, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep, awake, aware等。
☆个别的如alive即使作定语也只能是后置定语。
·In the small town alone, more than 200 houses and buildings are heated by solar energy, not to mention the big cities in the region. (考研题：92/19)
10. 以-ing结尾的分词转化来的形容词通常带有主动含义, 多用来修饰物；-ed分词转化来的形容词通常带有被动意义, 多用来修饰人, 修饰物时用来表示状态，但最主要的还是看是发出动作还是接受动作。［见“分词”部分］
11. than 后面省略主语：
·There ought to be less anxiety over the perceived risk of getting cancer than exists in the public mind today. (考研题：95/2)
·The project requires more labour than has been put in it because it is extremely difficult. (考研题：92/28)
12. other than与rather than不是比较：
other than除了，相当于except：
·Fifty years ago, wealthy people liked hunting wild animals for fun other than going sightseeing. (四级题：01.6/47)
·In no country other than Britain, it has been said, can one experience four seasons in the course of a single day. (四级题：99.6/66)
·The crop does not do well in soils other than the one for which it has been specially developed. (四级题：99.1/56)
☆rather than而不是：
·Young adults rather than older people are more likely to prefer pop songs. (四级题：96.6/40)
·We are taught that a business letter should be written in a formal style rather than in a personal one. (考研题：95/7)
13. not so much… as与其…不如…：
·The trumpet player was certainly loud. But I wasn’t bothered by his loudness so much as by his lack of talent. (四级题：99.1/68)
14. 其他几个比较级的句子：
·If tap water were as dangerous as some people think, a lot more of us would be getting sick. (四级题：98.1/41)
·Do you enjoy listening to records I find records are often as good as or better than an actual performance. (考研题：96/1)
·The heart is no more intelligent than the stomach, for they are both controlled by the brain. (考研题：94/4)
·No bread eaten by man is so sweet as that earned by his own labour. (考研题：94/8)
·He knows little of maths, and still less of chemistry. (考研题：91/29)
15. 形容词只能修饰名词，充当的句子成分通常为表、定、宾补
八、定语从句和同位语从句
定语从句重点考查介词+关系代词(which)和as作为关系代词。
1. as 和which引导非限定性定语从句, 在指代前面整个主句时的区别是：
如果主句在前, 用which/as都可以；如果主句在后, 只能用as, as还可插在主句中间：
·I hope all the precautions against air pollution, as suggested by the local government, will be seriously considered here. (四级题：99.6/53)
·The British are not so familiar with different cultures and other ways of doing things, as is often the case in other countries. (四级题：98.6/58)
2. 最高级常用of表示比较的范围
·Living in the central Australian desert has its problems, of which obtaining water is not the least. (考研题：94/3，四级题：98.1/42)
·Living in the western part of the country has its problems, of which obtaining fresh water is not the least. (四级题：00.6/46)
3. 在定语从句中，that不是作主语就是作宾语，而同位语从句中的that只是起连接作用，不充当成分
·The school board listened quietly as John read the demands that his followers had been demonstrating for. (考研题：93/3)
☆此句中that从句为定语从句，不是同位语从句，所以不用虚拟语气。
4. 同位语从句常跟在下列名词后面，通常由that引导：
appeal, belief, conclusion, condition, conviction, doubt, evidence, fact, fear, feeling, ground(s), hope, idea, likelihood, message, news, opinion, order, plan, point, possibility, problem, promise, proof, proposal, question, reply, rumour, sign, story, suggestion, suspicion, theory, thought, truth, trouble, understanding, worry
·There are signs that restaurants are becoming more popular with families. (四级题：00.6/37)
·The mere fact that most people believe nuclear war would be madness does not mean that it will not occur. (四级题：97.6/53)
5. 先行词是all, one, much, little, some, those, few, a few, anything, everything, nothing, 或先行词受any, no, only, the same, very 或受形容词最高级、序数词修饰, 关系代词无论指人还是指物都用that。
6. 下列关系代词不需要先行词：
what, whatever, whoever, whomever, whichever, 实际上这些词已经相当于连接词
[见前面的“连接词”部分]。
九、主谓分隔
由于有插入语、定语等分隔使主语和谓语距离太远，结果有些考生分辨不清，以致选错答案。
·They always give the vacant seats to whoever comes first. (四级题：02.12/51)
·The growth of part-time and flexible working patterns, and of training and retraining schemes, _____ more women to take advantage of employment opportunities. (四级题：00.6/43)
A) have allowed B) allow C) allowing D) allows
·We agreed to accept _____ they thought was the best tourist guide. (四级题：00.1/53)
A) whatever B) whomever
C) whichever D) whoever
·As teachers we should concern ourselves with what is said, not what we think _____. (四级题：97.6/49)
A) ought to be said B) must say
C) have to be said D) need to say
☆以上三题答案分别为D)、D)、A)。
十、时态、被动语态、情态动词
（一）时态
1. 常考时态：
1) 将来完成时：by与将来的时间连用，谓语用将来完成时：
·By the time you get to New York, I shall have left for London. (四级题：02.1/41)
·By the time he arrives in Beijing, we will have stayed here for two weeks. (四级题：01.6/31)
2) 过去完成时：by与过去的时间连用，谓语用过去完成时：
·He came back late, by which time all the guests had left. (四级题：99.6/41)
☆如能明确看出是在过去某时之前发生的动作也要用过去完成时：
·Until then, his family hadn't heard from him for six months. (四级题：97.1/21)
·A thief who broke into a church was caught because traces of wax, found on his clothes, had come from the sort of candles used only in churches. (四级题：99.6/63)
·Before the first non-stop flight made in 1949, it had been necessary for all planes to land and refueling. (四级题：96.6/25)
3) 现在完成进行时
·She ought to stop work; she has a headache because she has been reading too long. (四级题：00.1/41)
·It seems oil has been leaking from this pipe for some time. We’ll have to take the machine apart to put it right. (四级题：97.6/45)
2. 四类时态的构成：
1）一般时态： a. do/does/am/is/are b. did / was / were
c. shall / will do/be d. would/should do/be
2）进行时态： be doing
3）完成时态： have done
4）完成进行时态： have been doing
3. 在It’s the first (the second, the third…) time后面所接的从句中，动词应该用完成时态，如：
·It’s the first time we have been here.
（二）被动语态：
谓语形式是be done，但测试时主要是考非谓语动词的被动式，也就是考察句子的其他成分的情况居多，牢牢记住下表：
动名词/分词的被动式 不定式的被动式
一般式 being done to be done
完成式 having been done to have been done
1. 谓语：
·Jean Wagner’s most enduring contribution to the study of Afro-American poetry is his insistence that it be analysed in a religious, as well as worldly, frame of reference. (虚拟语气，考研题：94/6)
2. 表语：
·Greater efforts to increase agricultural production must be made if food shortage is to be avoided.（考研题98/5）
3. 状语：
·He wasn’t asked to take on the chairmanship of the society, being considered insufficiently popular with all members.（考研题98/9）
·All flights having been canceled because of the snowstorm, we decided to take the train. (考研题93/7)
（三）情态动词：
☆情态动词多与完成时形式连用。
1. should have done, ought to have done
上面的结构表示“应该做而未做”，如果是否定式则表示“不该做而做了”：
·The careless man received a ticket for speeding. He shouldn’t have driven so fast. (四级题：02.12/33)
·You shouldn't have been following him so closely; you should have kept your distance. (四级题：00.6/42)
2. needn’t have done表示“不必要做而做了”：
·As it turned out to be a small house party, we needn’t have dressed up so formally. (考研题：98/2)
3. must have done和may have done
上面的结构都表示猜想，前者把握特别大，后者小，否定形式是can’t have done：
·Investigators agreed that passengers on the airliner must have died at the very moment of the crash.(四级题：02.6/67)
·My pain must have been apparent the moment I walked into the room, for the first man I met asked sympathetically: “Are you feeling all right ” (考研题：96/2)
·From the tears in Nedra’s eyes we can deduce that something sad must have occurred. (考研题：93/18)
·The room is in a terrible mess; it can't have been cleaned.(四级题：96.6/31)
·You can't have seen her in her office last Friday; she’s been out of town for two weeks. (四级题：96.1/23)
·Research findings show we spend about two hours dreaming every night, no matter what we may have done during the day. (四级题：99.1/54)
4. may/might as well不妨，还是…的好
·If you don’t like to swim, you may as well stay at home. (四级题：95.1/60)
5. have to不得不：
·Cary didn’t go to the party last night because she had to look after the baby for her sister until 9:30. (考研题：92/8)
6. had better 和had best都表示“最好…”：
·According to one belief, if truth is to be known it will make itself apparent, so one had best wait instead of searching for it. (考研题：01/3)
7. 表示过去想做而未做的事：
1) had + intended (desired, hoped, planned, meant) to do;
2) intended (desired, hoped, planned, meant) to have done;
3) was/were to have done。
十一、强调形式
（一）强调句
●将it is/was…that/who 这几个词拿掉，照样是完整的句子。
1. It is/was…that…
·When I tried to understand _____ that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect, it seems to me that there r two causes. (四级题：98.1/60)
A) why it does B) what it does C) what it is D) why it is
☆这个强调句很隐秘、很复杂。强调的是what, 而what既作understand的宾语，又作prevents的主语，连接主从句，应选C)。
2. It is/was…who…
who只能指人，that即可指人也可指物，考试时只有以上两种形式，别的用which, when, where都不对，尽管英、美人可以随意用。
（二）do/does/did + 动词原形
·So you did come after all. (张道真：现代英语用法词典)
·Do be careful! (陆谷孙：英汉大词典)
（三）very作形容词，修饰名词，用来加强语气，表示“正(好)，就(在)”
·As soon as he heard of the great feast in the sky his throat began to itch at the very thought. 他一听说天上有盛宴，喉咙就痒痒的。
·The soup was brought out hot from the fire and in the very pot in which it had been cooked. 汤刚从炉子上烧好就原罐子热气腾腾地端上来了。
十二、宾语补足语
1. 不带to的不定式作宾语补足语：
A. 使役动词：make, let, have;
B. 感官动词：a. 眼睛: see, watch, notice, observe; b. 耳朵: hear; c. 全身: feel
☆以上各词都可以是 v + sb do的形式，但如果是被动语态，则to要还原：
·With the development in science and technology man can make various flowers bloom before their time. (四级题：01.6/36)
·They are going to have the serviceman install an electric fan in the office tomorrow. (四级题：98.1/44)
·I have heard both teachers and students speak well of him. (四级题：99.6/46)
2. have, see, watch, notice, observe, hear, feel, find这些词都可以用v + sb doing的句式。
3. have +宾语+宾补
have是个很特殊的词，宾补用原形、现在分词、过去分词均可：
have sb do have sb doing have sth done
☆上面是最常见的形式，其实也有 have sth do 和 have sth doing 的形式，判断依据是看宾语是否能发出后面的动词的动作：
如能发出，就是主动，用现在分词(表示正发生)或原形(表示一般情况)；
不能发出，就是被动，用过去分词。
[关于这一点参见前面的“分词”的概述部分]
4. regard类后面的宾语补足语
·After a few round of talks, both sides regarded the territory dispute as settled. (四级题：98.6/66)
·You will see this product advertised wherever you go. (四级题：00.6/30)
5. with + 宾语 + 宾语补足语［见前面的“分词”部分］
6. Don’t get your schedule changed; stay with us in this class. (四级题：96.1/42)
十三、一致关系
（一）谓语只用单数：
1. 单数主语、单个动词不定式、动名词短语以及句子作主语，谓语要用单数
2. 主语是单数，带有以下附加成分时，主语的谓语动词不受影响，仍是单数：
as well as, with, along with, like, together with, rather than, except, but, including, accompanied by, followed by, plus, besides, in addition to, no less than, 例如：
·His sister no less than you is wrong.
·The reading course book, plus its reference books, is helpful to college students.
3. the only one + 复数名词 + 关系代词引导的定语从句, 先行词是one, 从句中谓语用单数：
·He is the only one of those boys who is willing to take on another assignment.
4. the number of…, …的数量，谓语用单数
5. the variety of… …的种类，谓语用单数
6. many a + 单数名词, 谓语用单数，例如：
·Many a little makes a mickle. 积少成多。[谚语]
·Many a man has tried to get rich without success.
7. more than one (或more than one + 单数名词)作主语，谓语用单数形式。例如：
·More than one student has passed the examination.
8. each + 单名 + and each + 单名；
every + 单名 + and every + 单名；
many a + 单名 + and many a + 单名，
☆以上三种情况作主语时，谓语均为单数：
·Each pen and each paper is found in its place.
·Every boy and girl is treated in the same way.
·Many a boy and many a girl has seen it.
9. 一些代词在句子中作主语：
either, neither, each, one, the other, another, somebody, someone, something, anyone, anything, anybody, everyone, everything, everybody, no one, nothing, nobody等，包括由each, every修饰的名词，例如：
·Neither of the young men who had applied for a position in the university was accepted. (四级题：98.1/33)
·If anyone calls, tell him I’ll be back later.
·Neither likes the friends of the other. 两人都不喜欢对方的朋友。
·Everything around us is matter. 我们周围的所有东西都是物质。
10. 当one of, a portion of, a series of, a species of, a chain of 结构作主语时，谓语动词要用单数形式。例如：
·One of those students has passed the examination.
·A series of pre-recorded tapes has been prepared for language laboratory use.
11. 以-ics结尾的学科名称，如economics, physics, mechanics, politics等，它们作主语时，谓语用单数。
12. 表示重量、度量、衡量、价值的复数名词作主语，表示整体时，谓语动词常用单数形式。例如：
·Twenty miles is a long way to walk.
·Three pints isn’t enough to get me drunk.
·Six thousand dollars is a large sum of money to her.
13. 国家、单位和书报的名称，作为一个单一的概念，其谓语用单数：
·War and Peace is the longest book I’ve read.
·General Motors has recently closed down a plant.
14. 一人身兼二职时或两种物品在一起表示一种事物时，用单数：
·The bread and butter is served for breakfast. 早饭供应黄油面包。
·The owner and editor of the newspaper is to attend the meeting. (四级题：02.6/57)
（二）谓语只用复数：
1. a number of…
2. a variety of…
3. a great/good many + 复数名词
4. 复数主语、用and或both…and连接的动词不定式短语、动名词短语以及主语从句作主语，谓语动词用复数形式。
5. 有些表示总称意义的名词，形式上是单数，而意义上却是复数，谓语动词要用复数形式，如people, police, militia, cattle, poultry (家禽)等。例如：
·Cattle were allowed to graze on the village common.
·The police are searching for a tall dark man with a beard.
6. the majority of + 复数名词, 谓语用复数。
7. one of +复数名词+关系代词引导的定语从句, 先行词是复数名词, 从句中谓语用复数。
8. more than后面是复数名词，则谓语动词要用复数，例如：
·More than two hundred students have attended the lecture.
（三）就近原则 (也称毗邻一致)：
1. 由连词or, neither…or, either…or, not only … also等连接的并列主语，谓语动词的单复数和与其最近的主语一致：
·Either you or he is not telling the truth.
·Not only the switches but also the old wiring has been changed.
2. 在there be 的结构中，谓语动词的单复数形式一般也采取就近原则：
·There is a desk and four benches in the office.
·There are two chairs and a desk in the office.
（四）视情形：
1. 集合名词如committee, crowd, family, team, orchestra, group, government, committee, class, school, union, firm, staff, public等作主语时，谓语动词的数要根据语言内容而定。
如果它们作为一个集体单位时，动词用单数形式；
如就其中的各个成员来说，则谓语用复数形式。例如：
·His family is going to move.
·His family are very well.
·The public is / are requested not to leave litter in the park.
·The government who were responsible for this event attempted to find a solution.
·The government which was responsible for this event attempted to find a solution.
·The committee have discussed their report on the disaster.
·The audience are raising their hands to signify their approval.
2. 一些单、复数同形的词如means, species, sheep, deer, craft (含由craft结尾的词) 等，视具体情况而定。
（加例句）
3. plenty of, half of, a lot of, lots of, heaps of, loads of, 等 + 可数与不可数名词作主语时,不可数名词的谓语只用单数，可数名词的谓语视可数名词的单复数而定。例如：
·Half of this building is to be completed by spring.
·Half of the buildings have been painted completely.
·There is plenty of water in the pail.
·There are plenty of eggs in the box.
4. 当名词前有其他量词修饰时，谓语动词的单复数形式通常取决于量词。例如：
·Row upon row of soldiers is marching towards us on the field.
5. 由all of, most of, a lot of, some of, none of, plenty of, the rest 等 + 名词作主语时，谓语动词的形式应与名词一致。例如：
·None of the books satisfy the students.
·None of this meat is fit to eat.
·All of the research work was designed by the chief engineer.
·All of the students are against the plan for an outing at this time of the term.
6. the +形容词作主语时，如主语指的是一类人，谓语动词用复数形式；如果指的是单个人或抽象概念，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：
·The blind are taught trades in special schools.
·The departed was a good friend of his.
7. statistics和plastics
1) statistics当“统计学”这一学科讲时，谓语用单数：
·Statistics is not as difficult as some people think. 统计学并不像某些人所想象的那么难。（陆谷孙：英汉大词典）
☆而作“统计数字，统计资料”讲时则用复数：
·The recent statistics on marriage are interesting. 最近关于婚姻情况的统计资料挺有意思。（陆谷孙：英汉大词典）
·Statistics show that the way people live determines the way they eat. 统计数字表明人们的生活方式决定了其饮食方式。
2) plastics当“塑料学”讲时，谓语用单数：
·Plastics is an important branch of chemistry. 塑料学是化学的一门重要分支。（陆谷孙：英汉大词典）
☆而作“塑料制品”讲时则用复数：
·Plastics are used in many modern articles instead of wood, metal, etc. 塑料在许多现代用品中被用来代替木材、金属等。（陆谷孙：英汉大词典）
（五）人称代词的一致
十四、其他
1. cannot…too, cannot…enough/sufficient(ly), cannot…overdo 怎么…也不过分：
·You cannot be too careful when you drive a car. 开车时怎么小心也不过分。(四级题：97.6/32),
·A man can never have too many ties. 男人有再多的领带也不嫌多。(New Concept English, Book 2, Passage 41)
·This point cannot be overemphasized. 对于这一点怎么强调也不过分。
2. 祈使句 + and + 句子(用一般将来时) = If从句 + 主句：
·Turn on the television or open a magazine and you will often see advertisements showing happy, balanced families. (四级题：95.6/47)
·Talk to anyone in the drug store industry, and you’ll soon discover that the science of genetics is the biggest thing to hit drug research since penicillin was discovered. (考研题：00/8)
3. deny sb sth, deny sth to sb剥夺某人某物，相当于deprive sb of sth：
·Long after the 1998 World Cup was won, disappointed fans are still cursing the disputed refereeing decisions that denied victory to their team. 1998年的世界杯赛早已尘埃落定，但失望的球迷仍旧在诅咒那些使他们队不能获胜的有争议的裁决。（2000年1月四级题阅读第一篇第一句，要求翻译。）
·Some teenagers harbor a generalized resentment against society, which denies them the rights and privileges of adults, although physically they are mature. (考研题：93/22)
4. 平行结构：
·I’d rather have a room of my own, however small it is, than share a room with someone else. (四级题：01.1/55)
·In fact, Peter would rather have left for San Francisco than stayed in New York. (四级题：02.6/47)
☆本句中stayed前面省略了have。
·It is better to die on one’s feet than to live on one’s knees. (考研题：91/12)
5. Even if they are on sale, these fridges are equal in price to, if not expensive than the ones at the other store. (考研题：91/27)
6. learn …by heart背下：
·Students can learn the right answers by heart in class, and yet never combined them with their working models of the world. (四级题，完型部分：00.1/82)
7. 反意问句：
·Go straight into the cave and find out what’s in there, will you (四级题：92.6/53)
·There has been a great increase in retail sales, hasn’t there (四级题：02.6/43)
8. now that = since既然：
·Since you are leaving tomorrow, we can eat dinner together tonight. (四级题：99.6/58)
·Now that we have finished the course, we shall start doing more revision work.. (四级题：90.1/62)
9. 状语从句的考点为：
·非if引导的条件状语从句，此类句子多用at times，provided，so long as，in case，once等来替代if；
·由even if/so，now that，for all等引导的让步状语从句；
·just/hardly…when引导的时间状语从句；
·more than, as…as，not so much as，the same as，as much as等引导的比较状语从句
10. 独立主格结构多以逻辑主语＋分词的形式出现。
8
语 法 要 点
英语语法要点
五种基本句型
英语中的任何句子都可以归入以下五种句型：
1. 主语 + 谓语
·The baby cried. 孩子哭了。
·The machine doesn’t work well. 这台机器运转不好。
2. 主语 + 谓语 + 宾语
·Mary studied English very hard. 马丽刻苦学习英语。
3. 主语 + 谓语 + 间接宾语 + 直接宾语
·My father bought me a bike as my birthday present.
父亲给我买了一辆自行车作为生日礼物。
4. 主语 + 谓语 + 宾语 + 宾语补足语
·We always find her happy. 我们总是见她乐呵呵的。
5. 主语 + 系动词 + 表语
·He was a worker in a small factory at that time. 当时他还只是一家小厂的工人。
倒装
以下6种情形需要倒装：
（一）否定词在句首
no, at no time; in no way, by no means, on no account, in no case,
under no circumstances,
no longer, no less, no more, no sooner…than; never, seldom, little, even less,
not, not until, nowhere, neither, nor, not once, not only…but also;
at hardly any place, hardly…when, scarcely...when, barely, rarely, in vain
（二）ONLY在句首，作状语修饰副词、介词短语或从句：
only, only then, only at that time, only once…;
only in this way, only with…, only through…, only by…;
only when…, only after…, only because…
·Only under special circumstances are freshmen permitted to take make-up tests. (四级题：97.6/43)
☆但如only修饰名词则不倒装。
（加例句）
（三）连词SO在句首
（四）程度副词SO在句首
（五）表示让步的AS，当as引导让步状语从句，当“虽然”讲时，从句中的状语或表语要放在as前：
·Much as I admire David as a poet, I do not like him as a man. (四级题：04.1/48)
·Much as he likes her, he does get irritated with her sometimes. (考研题：92/9,四级题：00.6/49)
（六）其他
1. 以such或短语开头的句子：
to such a degree, to such an extent, to such extremes, to such a point
以上的各种情形均要求部分倒装
2. 以某些表示方向、位置的副词开头的句子，主谓要全部颠倒（一般不考）：
here, there, out, in, down, up, away…
（加例句）
二、虚拟语气
虚拟语气是一般考试中出现频率较最高的语法现象。
按谓语动词的形式可将虚拟语气分为四大类：
IF式、SUGGEST式、WISH式和过去式
（一）IF式，要点：回移一时态。
指在条件从句与结果主句中的谓语动词形式：
从句: 1.与现在事实相反,用一般过去时；2.与过去事实相反, 用过去完成时；
·牢记主从句的常规搭配形式：
从句谓语动词形式 主句谓语动词形式
与现在事实相反 did/were(不分人称) would/could/might + do/be
与过去事实相反 had done/been would/could/might + have done/been
与将来事实相反 did/were to do/should do would/could/might/+ do/be
☆注意事项：
1. if条件句中如有were, should, had,可以省去if，并使用倒装语序。
·If Karl, instead of writing a lot about capital, had made a lot of it, it would have been much better. — Karl Marx ( http: / / www.famous- / asp / acategories.asp Author=Karl+Marx )’s Mother
·The millions of calculations involves, had they been done by hand, would have lost all practical value by the time they were finished. (四级题：01.6/33)
·Countless divorced politicians would have been elected out of office years ago had they even thought of a divorce, let alone gotten one. (考研题：00/10)
2. if条件句中的谓语动词如果是be, 其过去形式一般用were。
3. but for sth, without sth可用来引导让步假设和转折假设，相当于一个条件句, 句子谓语用虚拟语气，与If it were not for sth (were it not for sth); If it had not been for sth (had it not been for sth) 类似：
·But for the help of their group, we would not have succeeded in the investigation. (四级题：02.12/47)
·Without the friction between their feet and the ground, people would in no way be able to walk. (考研题：96/31)
5. but, unfortunately后是真实情况，另一句用虚拟语气(一般在前面)：
·Some women could have made a great salary in a job instead of staying home, but they decided not to work for the sake of the family. (四级题：00.1/70)
·I would have gone to visit him in the hospital had it been at all possible, but I was fully occupied the whole of last week. (考研题：97/4)
6. otherwise, or else后有时用虚拟语气 ：
·He said that the driver must have had an accident; otherwise he would have arrived by then. (四级题：02.12/56)
·Mary couldn’t have received my letter; otherwise she should have replied by now. (考研题：91/17)
7. 混合虚拟，也叫错综时间条件句，主句与从句时态不一致：
·If I had worked harder at school, I would be sitting in a comfortable office now. (四级题：02.12/35)
·Had Paul received six more votes in the last election, he would be our chairman now. (考研题：92/24)
（二）SUGGEST式，要点：(should +) 动词原形。
指各种从句（主语、宾语、同位语以及状语）的谓语，不管主句的时态如何，从句都是(should +) 动词原形，有should为英式用法，不加为美式用法，考托福时要注意。这类虚拟语气的句子形式为以下五种：
A. 主语 + suggest (等表示“要求”类的动词) + that 主语+ (should) do/be
B. It be + suggested (等过去分词) + that 主语 + (should) do/be
C. It be + necessary (等形容词) + that 主语 + (should) do/be
D. It be + (my) suggestion (等名词) + that 主语 + (should) + do/be
E. …lest等连词+ 主语 + (should) + do/be
☆上面的A类为宾语从句，B、C为主语从句，D为同位语从句，E为状语从句。
1. 对应以上A、B类表示坚持、命令、意愿、建议的常用动词有：
suggestcommand prefer propose move(提名)maintain requirerequestrecommend askadvisearrange direct desiredemand insistorderurge
(还有几个: agree, decide, stipulate, vote，不过，这几个动词各种考试都未考过，maintain也从未考过。)
☆为了记住表中的18个动词，我“发明”了下面的办法（专利就不申请了），从上向下看这些词的首字母可变为下面的几个缩略词：
SC 2PM 3RAD IOU
SC=the Supreme Court(美国)最高法院; PM=下午; rad=radical激进分子; IOU=I owe you...借据，欠条。
这样以上不相干的几个词的意思可理解为：
美国最高法院在下午两点(审理了)三个激进分子的借条一案。
希望你能看出此句的滑稽、荒唐之处，笑过之后记住这些动词，它们的名词也就容易记住了。
·Mike’s uncle insists that he not stay in this hotel. (四级题：00.1/52)
·As Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, I have directed (命令) that all measures be taken for our defence. (四级题：99.6/62)
☆注意：当insist表示“坚持认为”、suggest表示“表明,显示”时，不用虚拟语气。
·The look on his face suggested that he was quite satisfied with what I had done for him.
2. 对应以上C类的形容词有：
preferableproper advisableappropriate naturalnecessary imperativeimportantincredible criticaldesirableessentialfitting strangeurgentvital
2PAN 3I CDEF SUV
[恕我愚笨，这些词我想不出怎么记忆了，请大家自己发挥吧。]
·I don’t think it advisable that Tim be assigned to the job since he has no experience. (四级题：97.6/55)
·It is vital that enough money be collected to fund the project. (四级题：97.1/45),
·The board deemed it urgent that these files should be printed right away. (考研题：93/1)
3. 对应以上D类的名词有 (多半都是A类动词变化而成, 不难记忆)：
motionadvicecommand decisiondemand requestrequire-ment importanceinsistence prefer-enceproposal suggestionnecessityorder
M AC SON 2DRIP
·Many a delegate was in favour of his proposal that a special committee be set up to investigate the incident. (四级题：02.1/47)
4. 对应以上E类的连词有：
lest, for fear that, in case
·While crossing the mountain area, all the men carried guns lest they should be attacked by wild animals. (四级题：02.12/38)
☆还有一个连词in case (以防，以免)，后面用真实语气也可以：
·I was advised to arrange for insurance in case I needed medical treatment. (四级题：99.1/65)
（三）WISH式，要点：回移一时态。
指wish等词后的宾语从句中，以及由if only等引起的状语从句中的谓语形式：
1. 与现在/将来事实相反，用一般过去时；
2. 与过去事实相反，用过去完成时。
☆注意:与哪个事实相反,不能以主句的时态为判断依据,而是根据从句的意义判断。
A. wish类的词有:would rather,would sooner, had rather, would as soon等；
B. if only类的连词有：as if, as though等。
1) WISH希望:
·Jack wishes that he had studied business instead of history when he was in university. (Cf:00.1/58) (四级题：01.6/50)
2) WOULD RATHER宁愿，宁可，95年以来考过7次,都是与现在事实相反:
·Who would you rather went with you, George or me (四级题：02.6/55)
3) IF ONLY要是，只要；要是…多好/就好了:
·If only the committee would approve the regulations and put them into effect as soon as possible. (四级题：97.1/47)
·The senior librarian at the circulation desk promised to get the book for me if only she could remember who last borrowed it. (考研题：96/3)
·Look at the terrible situation I am in! If only I had followed your advice. (四级题：93.6/70)
（四）过去式，因为谓语动词形式只是一种：过去时态，句式为：
It is time that + 主语 + 动词过去式；
It is about / high /getting time 主语 + 动词过去式。
·It is high time that such practices were ended. (四级题：02.12/58)
☆注意：有的语法书中说It’s time…后面可用(should +) do/be，但考试中测试的都是过去式，特别是托福考试，如没有过去式的形式时再选用 (should +) do/be形式。
三、非谓语动词
[（一）概述 （二）分词 （三）动名词 （四）不定式 （五）其他］
（一）概述
1. 分词
1）分词有现在分词和过去分词两类：
现在分词表示主动或进行的概念（即施动或正发生）
过去分词表示被动或完成的概念（即受动或已做完）
以上概念必须在头脑中牢牢地建立起来，为了方便记忆可用下面12个字表达
(近似一副对联)：
●现在主动发出 (“现在”表示“现在分词”)
●过去被动接受 (“过去”表示“过去分词”)
2）上面说的是及物动词，
☆而不及物动词的过去分词只表示完成，不能表示被动，
同为“落叶”，译成英语却是两样：
falling leaves（叶子在空中）； fallen leaves（叶子在地上）
3）分词除了与助动词连用构成时态和语态外，还可独立用，起形容词和副词的作用。
4）分词充当的句子成分与形容词和副词相同：表、定、状、宾补。
2. 动名词
1) 动名词与现在分词同形，和分词一样具有动词的某些特点（如有自己的宾语或状语），又在句中起名词的作用，因此叫“动名词”。
2) 动名词充当的句子成分与名词相同：主、宾、表、定。
3. 现在分词和动名词都有以下几种形式：
主动形式 被动形式
一般式 doing being done
完成式 having done having been done
4. 不定式可充当谓语外的各种句子成分，不定式有以下几种形式：
主动形式 被动形式
一般式 to do to be done
完成式 to have done to have been done
进行式 to be doing ——
完成进行式 to have been doing ——
5. 以上三种非谓语动词形式，其
主动形式就表示发出动作（施动）；
被动形式则表示接受动作（受动）。
6. 非谓语动词的完成式表示的动作先于谓语动词
·There was sign that Mr. Jospin, who keeps a firm control on the party despite having resigned from leadership of it, would intervene personally. (考研题：01/5)
·There seemed little hope that the explorer, having been deserted in the tropical forest, would find his was through it. (考研题：92/30)
7.
单个分词或动名词作定语可以前置； 分词、动名词的短语作定语必须后置。
不定式及其短语作定语也必须后置； 另外，其他类短语作定语也必须后置。
8. 非谓语动词的否定形式一律是not在前
9. there be的非谓语动词，有两种形式：
there to be 和there being
☆这个语法点是原来考研出的题，现在四级也考过了几回，目前市面上出售的四级模拟题里都没有，高考当然是不会考的。
·No one had told Smith about there being a lecture the following day. (四级题：01.1/66)
·For there to be successful communication, there must be attentiveness and involvement in the discussion itself by all present. (考研题：96/8)
（二）分词
1. 逗号一般不能连接两个并列分句, 以下面的句子为例记住这条原则：
·Beethoven, the great musician, wrote nine symphonies in his life, most of them were written after he had lost his hearing. (考研题: 93/65)（伟大的作曲家贝多芬一生写了九部交响曲，其中大部分是失聪后写的）
☆原题是改错题, 这个句子很典型，容易记，内容也好。原句乍看好像没什么错误，其实有问题，就是违反了上述原则，按原句要求，只能改第二处, 如不标出这样的句子还可以有几种改法：
A) 逗号变句号，大写, 如上句可变为：...his life. Most... 也就是说这句话“听”起来没错,“读”时有错；
B) 改为定语从句，如上句可变为：...his life, most of which were written...；
C) 变成独立主格，作状语,如上句可变为：...his life, most of them written... 即谓语变成非谓语；
D) 加并列连词，如上句可变为：...his life, and most of them were written... 也说得通；
E) 逗号变分号，还是并列句；
F) 加从属连词，变成从句。
这条规则在写作时也要特别注意
2. 独立主格作状语 (独立主格也称独立结构)
·All the tasks having been fulfilled ahead of time, they decided to go on holiday for a week . (四级题：01.6/56)
·All flights having been canceled because of the terrible weather, they had to go there by train. (四级题：02.1/67)
3. with + 宾语 + 分词(作宾补)
·After the Arab states won independence, great emphasis was laid on expanding education, with girls as well as boys being encouraged to go to school. (四级题：97.1/26)
·With the temperature falling so rapidly, we couldn’t go on with the experiment.
·The sale usually takes place outside the house, with the audience seated on benches, chairs or boxes. (四级题：00.1/46)
☆seat愿意是“使…坐下”，也就是观众“接受”这个动作。
4. leave sb + 分词(作宾补)使…如何：
·His remarks left me wondering about his real purpose. (四级题：99.6/45)
·Operations which left patients exhausted and in need of long periods of recovery time now leave them feeling relaxed and comfortable. (四级题：01.1/67)
5. 主语补足语：
·The lost car of the Lees was found abandoned in the woods off the highway. (考研题：91/21)
6. 状语
·Judged the best in a recent science competition, the three students were awarded scholarships totaling $21,000. (四级题01.1/46)
7. 定语
·The energy released by the chain reaction is transformed into heat. (四级题：02.6/68)
（三）动名词
1. 下列动词后用动名词作宾语：
acknowledgeadmitadvocateanticipateappreciate avoid endureenjoyescapeexcuse fancyfavourfinishforgive
delaydenydislike imagineincludeinvolve mentionmindmisssuggest pardonpostponepractise recallresentresistrisk quitunderstandjustifyconsiderkeep
☆以上单词的第一个字母连起来可以变成以下的形式：
6A 4REF 3DIMP S QUJCK
2. 下列动词短语也常接动名词：
approve of, be capable of, give up, keep on, put off
3. 注意下列后接动名词的习惯用法：
1) It’s no use/good/fun/picnic doing…
2) There is no use/point/sense/harm (in) doing…
3) There is no doing (telling, gainsaying)…
4) have difficulty/trouble/problem doing…
5) have a good/wonderful/hard/difficult time doing…
6) spend (time) doing…; waste (time) doing…
7) be busy doing…, keep…busy doing, be worth doing…
8) feel like doing…
9) can’t help/stand doing…
4. 下列动词、介词后接动名词具有主动形式、被动含义, 注意不要再用动名词的被动式：
1) sth be worth/past/beyond doing 比较：It’s worthwhile doing sth
2) sth need/want/require/demand/bear/deserve doing
·The machine needs a complete mending since it has been in use for over ten years. (考研题：98/21)
5. 作主语
·Reviewing their work will give us a much better feel for the wide differences between the two schools of thought. (四级题：02.6/69)
（四）不定式
1. 不定式的完成式一般作主语补足语：
·The Egyptians are supposed to have sent rockets to the moon. (四级题：96.6/37)
·The bank is reported in the local newspaper to have been robbed in broad daylight yesterday. (考研题：92/20; 四级题：01.1/63)
2. 不定式的一般式作主语补足语：
·As a public relations officer, he is said to know some very influential people. (四级题：01.6/34)
3. 不定式表示结果：
·Greatly agitated, I rushed to the apartment and tried the door, only to find it locked. (考研题：00/2)
4. be to do表示安排、命令、职责、义务、目的、用途、可能性、命中注定等：
·Greater efforts to increase agricultural production must be made if food shortage is to be avoided. (考研题：98/5)
·They were never to meet again.(陆谷孙：英汉大词典)
5. 疑问词wh- + to do, 相当于一个名词短语：
·California has more light than it knows what to do with but everything else is expensive. (考研题：99/7)
6. 下列动词后常用不定式作宾语：
afford, agree, arrange, attempt, claim, decide, determine, expect, fail, hope, intend, manage, mean, offer, plan, pretend, promise, refuse, tend
7. mean to do打算做某事：
·There’s man at the reception desk who seems very angry and I think he means to make trouble. (四级题：97.1/25)
8. 下列习惯用语中都带有but, 后面都接不带to的不定式：
cannot help but do…; cannot but do…
can do nothing but do…; cannot choose but do…
cannot do anything but do…
（加例句）
但：have no choice but to do…; have no alternative but to do …
·That was so serious a matter that I had no choice but to call in the police. (四级题：96.1/24)
9. 以下两个带rather的结构后也用动词原形：
would rather do than do; prefer to do rather than do
·I’d rather have a room of my own, however small it is, than share a room with someone else. (四级题：01.1/55)
10. The professor can hardly find sufficient grounds on which to base his argument in favour of the new theory. (考研题：95/3；四级题：00.6/36)
☆上句中的to base his argument相当于he bases his argument。
（五）其他
1.
forget to do sth 忘记了要去做某事； forget doing sth 忘记已做了某事；
remember to do sth 记住要去做某事；remember doing sth. 记得曾做过某事。
☆以上两组的不定式的动作均未发生，动名词的动作已发生。
·I’ll never forget meeting you for the first time. (四级题：01.1/43)
·If I had remembered to close the window, the thief would not have got in. (四级题：96.1/40)
·I remember him once offering to help us if we ever got into trouble.(四级题：93.6/62)
2. mean to do sth 打算做某事；mean doing 意味着…；
try to do sth 试图去做某事；try doing sth 试试某种方法。
·I didn’t mean to take a taxi but I had to as I was late. (四级题：01.1/53)
·There’s man at the reception desk who seems very angry and I think he means to make trouble. (四级题：97.1/25)
(加例句)
☆以上两组的不定式的动作均未发生，动名词的动作已发生。
3.
regret to tell sb that…
regret to inform sb. that...
regret to say/announce that…（加说明）遗憾地告诉/通知某人…
regret doing sth 对已做的事表示后悔、遗憾
4.
stop to do sth 停下去做别的事 (不定式为目的状语)
stop doing sth 停下在做的某事 (动名词为宾语)
四、连接词
写成连接词不是笔误，因为下面所说的有些不是真正的连词。
1. 下列副词和名词词组可以起连接词作用：
1) the instant/moment/minute (that), directly, instantly这些都相当于as soon as，如：
·We hadn’t met for 20 years, but I recognized her the moment I saw her. (四级题：01.6/44)
·You see the lightning the instant it happens, but you hear the thunder later. (四级题：97.1/38)
2) each/every time, the first time, last/next time
·The policeman went into action directly they heard the alarm. (考研题：91/20)
2. when表示“突然，意外”等：
·I was half way back to the village where my mother lived when Susan caught up with me. (四级题：01.1/68)
·I had just started back for the house to change my clothes when I heard voices. (四级题：97.6/44)
·I felt somewhat disappointed and was about to leave, when something occurred which attracted my attention. (四级题：96.1/45)
·On a rainy day I was driving north through Vermont when I noticed a young man holding up a sign reading “Boston”. (考研题：00/5)
3. what = the thing(s) which, all that或that that
也就是相当于两个句子成分，既在主句中充当成分，也在从句中充当成分：
·But they never altered their incorrect mental models of planetary motion because their everyday observations didn’t support what their teachers told them. (四级题完型部分：00.1/79)
·Professor Lee’s book will show you how what you have observed can be used in other contexts. (考研题：93/6)
·Water will continue to be what it is today — next in importance to oxygen. (考研题：92/23)
☆以下两句中的黑体字都相当于一个what：
·These people once had fame and fortune. Now all that is left to them is utter poverty. (四级题：02.6/61)
·All that is needed is a continuous supply of the basic necessities of life. (四级题：90.1/46)
4. There is no rule but has exceptions. (but = which…not) 规律皆有例外。(谚语)
Nobody knew him but respected him. (but = who…not) 认识他的人无不尊敬他。(陆谷孙：英汉大词典)
5. 下列连接词语不要混淆：
that——which as far as——as long as such…as——such…that
who——whom so far as——so long as unless——if
·I will give the dictionary to whoever wants to have it. (考研题：92/1)
·They always give the vacant seats to whoever comes first. (四级题：02.12/51)
·We agreed to accept whoever they thought was the best tourist guide. (四级题：00.1/53)
☆以上三句中的whoever既作主句的宾语，还作从句的主语，所以不能用whomever。
·He will surely finish the job on time so long as he’s left to do it in his own way. (四级题：01.1/61)
·So long as he works hard, I don’t mind when he finishes the experiment. (四级题：98.1/35)
·Conversation becomes weaker in a society that spends so much time listening and being talked to that it has all but lost the will and the skill to speak for itself. (考研题：01/9)
·Most children with healthy appetites are ready to eat almost anything that is offered them and a child rarely dislikes food unless it is badly cooked. (四级题完型部分：97.6/61)
☆unless一词本身具有否定意义, 相当于if…not…。
6. in case以防，以免：
·I was advised to arrange for insurance in case I needed medical treatment. (四级题：99.1/65)
7. 其他：
·For the new country to survive, let alone (=to say nothing of更不用说) for its people to enjoy prosperity, new economic policies will be required. (考研题：97/38)
·You can arrive in Beijing earlier for the meeting provided (=providing=on condition that) you don’t mind taking the night train. (考研题：93/19)
·The engineers are going through with their highway project, even though the expenses have risen. (考研题：93/21)
·Dress warmly, or else you’ll catch cold. (or = or else = otherwise考研题：91/22)
五、名词
考察名词主要涉及名词分别与介词、动词以及形容词的搭配，还有冠词用法、单复数，以及意义辨析等。
1. all of 后面接不可数名词时，名词前须有定冠词。
2. 单数可数名词前必须有定冠词或不定冠词（例外不多，如man 表示人类）。
3. 名词只能受形容词修饰,名词只能修饰名词
4. 名词的句子成分为主、宾、表、定、宾补
六、副词
1. 考副词时会涉及到动词与副词的搭配、副词与形容词的搭配。
2.. that = so
3. far too + adj/adv = much too + adj/adv 实在太…
4.
enough修饰形容词、副词时，必须后置
enough作形容词修饰名词时前后置均可
·You cannot be ______ careful when you drive a car. (四级题：97.6/32)
A) very B) so C) too D) enough
此题该选C项。如果题目是这样：
You cannot be careful ______ when you drive a car. 则该选D项。
6. 副词可修饰动词、形容词和副词本身
7. 副词的句子成分多为状语，也作表语
七、形容词
1. 考形容词时会涉及形容词与名词、形容词与介词的搭配等.
2. Americans eat twice as much protein as they actually need every day. (98.6/56)
如果是可数名词则为：倍数 + as many as。
3.下列形容词没有比较级形式, 表示比较时后面用to, 不用than：
superiorinferior majorminor seniorjunior priorpreferable
·This watch is superior to all the other watches on the market. (考研题：91/14)
·Their products are frequently overpriced and inferior in quality. (四级题：02.6/59)
4. Sb be familiar with sth; Sth be familiar to sb; 不要与similar to混淆。
5. likely与possible 前者可用人作主语，也可是非人称主语，而后者一般不用人作主语，通常是：
It be possible (for sb) to do sth.
Sb be likely to do.
·I think the Red Team will win the final game; it’s very likely that they will. (92.6/49),
6. 如有多个词同时修饰某个名词，这些词的顺序安排规则是：
限定词+序数词+基数词/量词+特性/描述词+形状/大小/长宽/高低/温度+年龄/新旧+颜色+来源/出处/国籍+制造材料+用途/类别+名词。
☆为了方便记忆，可利用一个杜撰词，
opshacom/f
其中op=opinion(如: beautiful, valuable), sha=shape(包括长度,宽度,高度,大小),a=age, co=colour, o=origin, m=material, f=function, 该词最后一个f不要一般也够了, 如：
a very valuable small round old brown French oak writing desk
[当然生活中这样说的人不多，否则会让人怀疑脑子有问题，搞笑除外。]
7. 注意下列受副词修饰的形容词的位置：
so/as/too/how/however + 形容词 + a + 单数可数名词，如：too large a room；
such/what/quite/rather + a + 形容词 + 单数可数名词，如：quite a large room
8. 注意下列名词加-ly结尾的词是形容词：
costly, friendly, leisurely, lonely, likely, brotherly, monthly等。
9. 有些以字母 a- 开始的形容词通常只作表语，不作定语，如：afraid, afloat, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep, awake, aware等。
☆个别的如alive即使作定语也只能是后置定语。
·In the small town alone, more than 200 houses and buildings are heated by solar energy, not to mention the big cities in the region. (考研题：92/19)
10. 以-ing结尾的分词转化来的形容词通常带有主动含义, 多用来修饰物；-ed分词转化来的形容词通常带有被动意义, 多用来修饰人, 修饰物时用来表示状态，但最主要的还是看是发出动作还是接受动作。［见“分词”部分］
11. than 后面省略主语：
·There ought to be less anxiety over the perceived risk of getting cancer than exists in the public mind today. (考研题：95/2)
·The project requires more labour than has been put in it because it is extremely difficult. (考研题：92/28)
12. other than与rather than不是比较：
other than除了，相当于except：
·Fifty years ago, wealthy people liked hunting wild animals for fun other than going sightseeing. (四级题：01.6/47)
·In no country other than Britain, it has been said, can one experience four seasons in the course of a single day. (四级题：99.6/66)
·The crop does not do well in soils other than the one for which it has been specially developed. (四级题：99.1/56)
☆rather than而不是：
·Young adults rather than older people are more likely to prefer pop songs. (四级题：96.6/40)
·We are taught that a business letter should be written in a formal style rather than in a personal one. (考研题：95/7)
13. not so much… as与其…不如…：
·The trumpet player was certainly loud. But I wasn’t bothered by his loudness so much as by his lack of talent. (四级题：99.1/68)
14. 其他几个比较级的句子：
·If tap water were as dangerous as some people think, a lot more of us would be getting sick. (四级题：98.1/41)
·Do you enjoy listening to records I find records are often as good as or better than an actual performance. (考研题：96/1)
·The heart is no more intelligent than the stomach, for they are both controlled by the brain. (考研题：94/4)
·No bread eaten by man is so sweet as that earned by his own labour. (考研题：94/8)
·He knows little of maths, and still less of chemistry. (考研题：91/29)
15. 形容词只能修饰名词，充当的句子成分通常为表、定、宾补
八、定语从句和同位语从句
定语从句重点考查介词+关系代词(which)和as作为关系代词。
1. as 和which引导非限定性定语从句, 在指代前面整个主句时的区别是：
如果主句在前, 用which/as都可以；如果主句在后, 只能用as, as还可插在主句中间：
·I hope all the precautions against air pollution, as suggested by the local government, will be seriously considered here. (四级题：99.6/53)
·The British are not so familiar with different cultures and other ways of doing things, as is often the case in other countries. (四级题：98.6/58)
2. 最高级常用of表示比较的范围
·Living in the central Australian desert has its problems, of which obtaining water is not the least. (考研题：94/3，四级题：98.1/42)
·Living in the western part of the country has its problems, of which obtaining fresh water is not the least. (四级题：00.6/46)
3. 在定语从句中，that不是作主语就是作宾语，而同位语从句中的that只是起连接作用，不充当成分
·The school board listened quietly as John read the demands that his followers had been demonstrating for. (考研题：93/3)
☆此句中that从句为定语从句，不是同位语从句，所以不用虚拟语气。
4. 同位语从句常跟在下列名词后面，通常由that引导：
appeal, belief, conclusion, condition, conviction, doubt, evidence, fact, fear, feeling, ground(s), hope, idea, likelihood, message, news, opinion, order, plan, point, possibility, problem, promise, proof, proposal, question, reply, rumour, sign, story, suggestion, suspicion, theory, thought, truth, trouble, understanding, worry
·There are signs that restaurants are becoming more popular with families. (四级题：00.6/37)
·The mere fact that most people believe nuclear war would be madness does not mean that it will not occur. (四级题：97.6/53)
5. 先行词是all, one, much, little, some, those, few, a few, anything, everything, nothing, 或先行词受any, no, only, the same, very 或受形容词最高级、序数词修饰, 关系代词无论指人还是指物都用that。
6. 下列关系代词不需要先行词：
what, whatever, whoever, whomever, whichever, 实际上这些词已经相当于连接词
[见前面的“连接词”部分]。
九、主谓分隔
由于有插入语、定语等分隔使主语和谓语距离太远，结果有些考生分辨不清，以致选错答案。
·They always give the vacant seats to whoever comes first. (四级题：02.12/51)
·The growth of part-time and flexible working patterns, and of training and retraining schemes, _____ more women to take advantage of employment opportunities. (四级题：00.6/43)
A) have allowed B) allow C) allowing D) allows
·We agreed to accept _____ they thought was the best tourist guide. (四级题：00.1/53)
A) whatever B) whomever
C) whichever D) whoever
·As teachers we should concern ourselves with what is said, not what we think _____. (四级题：97.6/49)
A) ought to be said B) must say
C) have to be said D) need to say
☆以上三题答案分别为D)、D)、A)。
十、时态、被动语态、情态动词
（一）时态
1. 常考时态：
1) 将来完成时：by与将来的时间连用，谓语用将来完成时：
·By the time you get to New York, I shall have left for London. (四级题：02.1/41)
·By the time he arrives in Beijing, we will have stayed here for two weeks. (四级题：01.6/31)
2) 过去完成时：by与过去的时间连用，谓语用过去完成时：
·He came back late, by which time all the guests had left. (四级题：99.6/41)
☆如能明确看出是在过去某时之前发生的动作也要用过去完成时：
·Until then, his family hadn't heard from him for six months. (四级题：97.1/21)
·A thief who broke into a church was caught because traces of wax, found on his clothes, had come from the sort of candles used only in churches. (四级题：99.6/63)
·Before the first non-stop flight made in 1949, it had been necessary for all planes to land and refueling. (四级题：96.6/25)
3) 现在完成进行时
·She ought to stop work; she has a headache because she has been reading too long. (四级题：00.1/41)
·It seems oil has been leaking from this pipe for some time. We’ll have to take the machine apart to put it right. (四级题：97.6/45)
2. 四类时态的构成：
1）一般时态： a. do/does/am/is/are b. did / was / were
c. shall / will do/be d. would/should do/be
2）进行时态： be doing
3）完成时态： have done
4）完成进行时态： have been doing
3. 在It’s the first (the second, the third…) time后面所接的从句中，动词应该用完成时态，如：
·It’s the first time we have been here.
（二）被动语态：
谓语形式是be done，但测试时主要是考非谓语动词的被动式，也就是考察句子的其他成分的情况居多，牢牢记住下表：
动名词/分词的被动式 不定式的被动式
一般式 being done to be done
完成式 having been done to have been done
1. 谓语：
·Jean Wagner’s most enduring contribution to the study of Afro-American poetry is his insistence that it be analysed in a religious, as well as worldly, frame of reference. (虚拟语气，考研题：94/6)
2. 表语：
·Greater efforts to increase agricultural production must be made if food shortage is to be avoided.（考研题98/5）
3. 状语：
·He wasn’t asked to take on the chairmanship of the society, being considered insufficiently popular with all members.（考研题98/9）
·All flights having been canceled because of the snowstorm, we decided to take the train. (考研题93/7)
（三）情态动词：
☆情态动词多与完成时形式连用。
1. should have done, ought to have done
上面的结构表示“应该做而未做”，如果是否定式则表示“不该做而做了”：
·The careless man received a ticket for speeding. He shouldn’t have driven so fast. (四级题：02.12/33)
·You shouldn't have been following him so closely; you should have kept your distance. (四级题：00.6/42)
2. needn’t have done表示“不必要做而做了”：
·As it turned out to be a small house party, we needn’t have dressed up so formally. (考研题：98/2)
3. must have done和may have done
上面的结构都表示猜想，前者把握特别大，后者小，否定形式是can’t have done：
·Investigators agreed that passengers on the airliner must have died at the very moment of the crash.(四级题：02.6/67)
·My pain must have been apparent the moment I walked into the room, for the first man I met asked sympathetically: “Are you feeling all right ” (考研题：96/2)
·From the tears in Nedra’s eyes we can deduce that something sad must have occurred. (考研题：93/18)
·The room is in a terrible mess; it can't have been cleaned.(四级题：96.6/31)
·You can't have seen her in her office last Friday; she’s been out of town for two weeks. (四级题：96.1/23)
·Research findings show we spend about two hours dreaming every night, no matter what we may have done during the day. (四级题：99.1/54)
4. may/might as well不妨，还是…的好
·If you don’t like to swim, you may as well stay at home. (四级题：95.1/60)
5. have to不得不：
·Cary didn’t go to the party last night because she had to look after the baby for her sister until 9:30. (考研题：92/8)
6. had better 和had best都表示“最好…”：
·According to one belief, if truth is to be known it will make itself apparent, so one had best wait instead of searching for it. (考研题：01/3)
7. 表示过去想做而未做的事：
1) had + intended (desired, hoped, planned, meant) to do;
2) intended (desired, hoped, planned, meant) to have done;
3) was/were to have done。
十一、强调形式
（一）强调句
●将it is/was…that/who 这几个词拿掉，照样是完整的句子。
1. It is/was…that…
·When I tried to understand _____ that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect, it seems to me that there r two causes. (四级题：98.1/60)
A) why it does B) what it does C) what it is D) why it is
☆这个强调句很隐秘、很复杂。强调的是what, 而what既作understand的宾语，又作prevents的主语，连接主从句，应选C)。
2. It is/was…who…
who只能指人，that即可指人也可指物，考试时只有以上两种形式，别的用which, when, where都不对，尽管英、美人可以随意用。
（二）do/does/did + 动词原形
·So you did come after all. (张道真：现代英语用法词典)
·Do be careful! (陆谷孙：英汉大词典)
（三）very作形容词，修饰名词，用来加强语气，表示“正(好)，就(在)”
·As soon as he heard of the great feast in the sky his throat began to itch at the very thought. 他一听说天上有盛宴，喉咙就痒痒的。
·The soup was brought out hot from the fire and in the very pot in which it had been cooked. 汤刚从炉子上烧好就原罐子热气腾腾地端上来了。
十二、宾语补足语
1. 不带to的不定式作宾语补足语：
A. 使役动词：make, let, have;
B. 感官动词：a. 眼睛: see, watch, notice, observe; b. 耳朵: hear; c. 全身: feel
☆以上各词都可以是 v + sb do的形式，但如果是被动语态，则to要还原：
·With the development in science and technology man can make various flowers bloom before their time. (四级题：01.6/36)
·They are going to have the serviceman install an electric fan in the office tomorrow. (四级题：98.1/44)
·I have heard both teachers and students speak well of him. (四级题：99.6/46)
2. have, see, watch, notice, observe, hear, feel, find这些词都可以用v + sb doing的句式。
3. have +宾语+宾补
have是个很特殊的词，宾补用原形、现在分词、过去分词均可：
have sb do have sb doing have sth done
☆上面是最常见的形式，其实也有 have sth do 和 have sth doing 的形式，判断依据是看宾语是否能发出后面的动词的动作：
如能发出，就是主动，用现在分词(表示正发生)或原形(表示一般情况)；
不能发出，就是被动，用过去分词。
[关于这一点参见前面的“分词”的概述部分]
4. regard类后面的宾语补足语
·After a few round of talks, both sides regarded the territory dispute as settled. (四级题：98.6/66)
·You will see this product advertised wherever you go. (四级题：00.6/30)
5. with + 宾语 + 宾语补足语［见前面的“分词”部分］
6. Don’t get your schedule changed; stay with us in this class. (四级题：96.1/42)
十三、一致关系
（一）谓语只用单数：
1. 单数主语、单个动词不定式、动名词短语以及句子作主语，谓语要用单数
2. 主语是单数，带有以下附加成分时，主语的谓语动词不受影响，仍是单数：
as well as, with, along with, like, together with, rather than, except, but, including, accompanied by, followed by, plus, besides, in addition to, no less than, 例如：
·His sister no less than you is wrong.
·The reading course book, plus its reference books, is helpful to college students.
3. the only one + 复数名词 + 关系代词引导的定语从句, 先行词是one, 从句中谓语用单数：
·He is the only one of those boys who is willing to take on another assignment.
4. the number of…, …的数量，谓语用单数
5. the variety of… …的种类，谓语用单数
6. many a + 单数名词, 谓语用单数，例如：
·Many a little makes a mickle. 积少成多。[谚语]
·Many a man has tried to get rich without success.
7. more than one (或more than one + 单数名词)作主语，谓语用单数形式。例如：
·More than one student has passed the examination.
8. each + 单名 + and each + 单名；
every + 单名 + and every + 单名；
many a + 单名 + and many a + 单名，
☆以上三种情况作主语时，谓语均为单数：
·Each pen and each paper is found in its place.
·Every boy and girl is treated in the same way.
·Many a boy and many a girl has seen it.
9. 一些代词在句子中作主语：
either, neither, each, one, the other, another, somebody, someone, something, anyone, anything, anybody, everyone, everything, everybody, no one, nothing, nobody等，包括由each, every修饰的名词，例如：
·Neither of the young men who had applied for a position in the university was accepted. (四级题：98.1/33)
·If anyone calls, tell him I’ll be back later.
·Neither likes the friends of the other. 两人都不喜欢对方的朋友。
·Everything around us is matter. 我们周围的所有东西都是物质。
10. 当one of, a portion of, a series of, a species of, a chain of 结构作主语时，谓语动词要用单数形式。例如：
·One of those students has passed the examination.
·A series of pre-recorded tapes has been prepared for language laboratory use.
11. 以-ics结尾的学科名称，如economics, physics, mechanics, politics等，它们作主语时，谓语用单数。
12. 表示重量、度量、衡量、价值的复数名词作主语，表示整体时，谓语动词常用单数形式。例如：
·Twenty miles is a long way to walk.
·Three pints isn’t enough to get me drunk.
·Six thousand dollars is a large sum of money to her.
13. 国家、单位和书报的名称，作为一个单一的概念，其谓语用单数：
·War and Peace is the longest book I’ve read.
·General Motors has recently closed down a plant.
14. 一人身兼二职时或两种物品在一起表示一种事物时，用单数：
·The bread and butter is served for breakfast. 早饭供应黄油面包。
·The owner and editor of the newspaper is to attend the meeting. (四级题：02.6/57)
（二）谓语只用复数：
1. a number of…
2. a variety of…
3. a great/good many + 复数名词
4. 复数主语、用and或both…and连接的动词不定式短语、动名词短语以及主语从句作主语，谓语动词用复数形式。
5. 有些表示总称意义的名词，形式上是单数，而意义上却是复数，谓语动词要用复数形式，如people, police, militia, cattle, poultry (家禽)等。例如：
·Cattle were allowed to graze on the village common.
·The police are searching for a tall dark man with a beard.
6. the majority of + 复数名词, 谓语用复数。
7. one of +复数名词+关系代词引导的定语从句, 先行词是复数名词, 从句中谓语用复数。
8. more than后面是复数名词，则谓语动词要用复数，例如：
·More than two hundred students have attended the lecture.
（三）就近原则 (也称毗邻一致)：
1. 由连词or, neither…or, either…or, not only … also等连接的并列主语，谓语动词的单复数和与其最近的主语一致：
·Either you or he is not telling the truth.
·Not only the switches but also the old wiring has been changed.
2. 在there be 的结构中，谓语动词的单复数形式一般也采取就近原则：
·There is a desk and four benches in the office.
·There are two chairs and a desk in the office.
（四）视情形：
1. 集合名词如committee, crowd, family, team, orchestra, group, government, committee, class, school, union, firm, staff, public等作主语时，谓语动词的数要根据语言内容而定。
如果它们作为一个集体单位时，动词用单数形式；
如就其中的各个成员来说，则谓语用复数形式。例如：
·His family is going to move.
·His family are very well.
·The public is / are requested not to leave litter in the park.
·The government who were responsible for this event attempted to find a solution.
·The government which was responsible for this event attempted to find a solution.
·The committee have discussed their report on the disaster.
·The audience are raising their hands to signify their approval.
2. 一些单、复数同形的词如means, species, sheep, deer, craft (含由craft结尾的词) 等，视具体情况而定。
（加例句）
3. plenty of, half of, a lot of, lots of, heaps of, loads of, 等 + 可数与不可数名词作主语时,不可数名词的谓语只用单数，可数名词的谓语视可数名词的单复数而定。例如：
·Half of this building is to be completed by spring.
·Half of the buildings have been painted completely.
·There is plenty of water in the pail.
·There are plenty of eggs in the box.
4. 当名词前有其他量词修饰时，谓语动词的单复数形式通常取决于量词。例如：
·Row upon row of soldiers is marching towards us on the field.
5. 由all of, most of, a lot of, some of, none of, plenty of, the rest 等 + 名词作主语时，谓语动词的形式应与名词一致。例如：
·None of the books satisfy the students.
·None of this meat is fit to eat.
·All of the research work was designed by the chief engineer.
·All of the students are against the plan for an outing at this time of the term.
6. the +形容词作主语时，如主语指的是一类人，谓语动词用复数形式；如果指的是单个人或抽象概念，谓语动词用单数形式。例如：
·The blind are taught trades in special schools.
·The departed was a good friend of his.
7. statistics和plastics
1) statistics当“统计学”这一学科讲时，谓语用单数：
·Statistics is not as difficult as some people think. 统计学并不像某些人所想象的那么难。（陆谷孙：英汉大词典）
☆而作“统计数字，统计资料”讲时则用复数：
·The recent statistics on marriage are interesting. 最近关于婚姻情况的统计资料挺有意思。（陆谷孙：英汉大词典）
·Statistics show that the way people live determines the way they eat. 统计数字表明人们的生活方式决定了其饮食方式。
2) plastics当“塑料学”讲时，谓语用单数：
·Plastics is an important branch of chemistry. 塑料学是化学的一门重要分支。（陆谷孙：英汉大词典）
☆而作“塑料制品”讲时则用复数：
·Plastics are used in many modern articles instead of wood, metal, etc. 塑料在许多现代用品中被用来代替木材、金属等。（陆谷孙：英汉大词典）
（五）人称代词的一致
十四、其他
1. cannot…too, cannot…enough/sufficient(ly), cannot…overdo 怎么…也不过分：
·You cannot be too careful when you drive a car. 开车时怎么小心也不过分。(四级题：97.6/32),
·A man can never have too many ties. 男人有再多的领带也不嫌多。(New Concept English, Book 2, Passage 41)
·This point cannot be overemphasized. 对于这一点怎么强调也不过分。
2. 祈使句 + and + 句子(用一般将来时) = If从句 + 主句：
·Turn on the television or open a magazine and you will often see advertisements showing happy, balanced families. (四级题：95.6/47)
·Talk to anyone in the drug store industry, and you’ll soon discover that the science of genetics is the biggest thing to hit drug research since penicillin was discovered. (考研题：00/8)
3. deny sb sth, deny sth to sb剥夺某人某物，相当于deprive sb of sth：
·Long after the 1998 World Cup was won, disappointed fans are still cursing the disputed refereeing decisions that denied victory to their team. 1998年的世界杯赛早已尘埃落定，但失望的球迷仍旧在诅咒那些使他们队不能获胜的有争议的裁决。（2000年1月四级题阅读第一篇第一句，要求翻译。）
·Some teenagers harbor a generalized resentment against society, which denies them the rights and privileges of adults, although physically they are mature. (考研题：93/22)
4. 平行结构：
·I’d rather have a room of my own, however small it is, than share a room with someone else. (四级题：01.1/55)
·In fact, Peter would rather have left for San Francisco than stayed in New York. (四级题：02.6/47)
☆本句中stayed前面省略了have。
·It is better to die on one’s feet than to live on one’s knees. (考研题：91/12)
5. Even if they are on sale, these fridges are equal in price to, if not expensive than the ones at the other store. (考研题：91/27)
6. learn …by heart背下：
·Students can learn the right answers by heart in class, and yet never combined them with their working models of the world. (四级题，完型部分：00.1/82)
7. 反意问句：
·Go straight into the cave and find out what’s in there, will you (四级题：92.6/53)
·There has been a great increase in retail sales, hasn’t there (四级题：02.6/43)
8. now that = since既然：
·Since you are leaving tomorrow, we can eat dinner together tonight. (四级题：99.6/58)
·Now that we have finished the course, we shall start doing more revision work.. (四级题：90.1/62)
9. 状语从句的考点为：
·非if引导的条件状语从句，此类句子多用at times，provided，so long as，in case，once等来替代if；
·由even if/so，now that，for all等引导的让步状语从句；
·just/hardly…when引导的时间状语从句；
·more than, as…as，not so much as，the same as，as much as等引导的比较状语从句
10. 独立主格结构多以逻辑主语＋分词的形式出现。