新概念英语第二册语法分类归纳

人称代词
单数 复数
第一人称 I (我) we (我们)
第二人称 you(你) you (你们)
第三人称 he (他) they (他们)
第三人称 she(她) they (她们)
第三人称 it (它) they (它们)
动词be的人称变化
I am we are
you are you are
he is they are
she is they are
it is they are
人称代词的主格和宾格
英语人称代词有两种形式:主格和宾格。作主语时用主格，作宾语时用宾格。
单数 复数
主格 宾格 主格 宾格
第一人称 I me we us
第二人称 you you you you
第三人称 he him they them
第三人称 she her they them
第三人称 it it they them
祈使句
祈使句表示命令或请求，例如:
Sit down! (坐下!)
Open your books， please. (请把你们的书打开。)
祈使句的句末通常用句号，为了加强语气也可以用惊叹号。在表示客气的请求时，常加上please (请);加在前面时带重音，加在后面不带重音，书写时前面加一个逗点，例如:
Please read the text.(请读课文。)
Close your books， please.(请把你们的书合上。)
祈使句的否定式是在前面加 do not 或don’t (不要，别)构成的，例如:
Don’t open your books.(别把你们的书打开。)
还有一种祈使句是以 let us 或 let’s (让我们)开头的，它表示建议别人和自己一道来做某事，例如:
Let’s have dictation.(咱们来做听写吧。)
Let’s read the text.(咱们来读课文吧。)
词类
英语的词按照意义、词形变化和句法作用等方面的特点可以分为十类:
1. 名词(noun - n.- 缩写，下同):名词是人、事物
以及抽象概念等的名称，例如:girl，desk，
English等。
2. 冠词(article):冠词是附属于名词的一种虚词，
它帮助说明名词的意义。英语共有两个冠词:不
定冠词a(an)和定冠词the。
3. 代词(pronoun - pron.):代词是用以代替名词的
词类，例如:I，they，this等。
4. 形容词(adjective - adj.):形容词是表示人或
事物的形状、性质、状态等的词。例如:good，
little 等。
5. 数词(numeral - num.):数词是表示数量和次序
的词。例如:two，first(第壹）等。
6. 动词(verb - v.):动词是表示人和事物的行为或
状态的词，例如:open，sleep等。
7. 副词(adverb - adv.):副词是在句中修饰动词、
形容词或其他副词，以说明状态、性质和程度等
的词，例如:down，very等。
8. 介词(preposition - prep.):介词是表示名词或
代词与其他词的关系的虚词，例如:in，on，at
等。
9. 连词(conjunction - conj.):连词是连接词与
词、词组与词组、句子与句子的虚词，例如:
but，and等。
10.感叹词(interjection - interj.):感叹词是表
示说话时惊奇、喜悦等感情的词，例如: Oh(啊)
等。
英语中的词，所属词类不同，形态变化有时也会随之不同，学习单词时必须注意它的词类和词形变化。另外，一个词在英语中属于某词类，译成汉语却不一定用同一词类，必须注意避免按字直译。
句子成分
一个句子由若干成分组成，这些成分叫做句子成分。句子成分依照在句中的作用分为:主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等。一般句子都必须有主语和谓语;主语表示所说的是谁或是什么，谓语对主语加以说明，表示它所做的动作或所处的状态。主语和谓语是句子的主要成分。例如:
主语 谓语
We study (学习) and work.
有些谓语是由系动词和另一个词(或词组)构成的，和系动词一起构成谓语的这个词(或词组)叫做表语，例如:
主语 谓语
He is a student.
(系动词) (表语)
一个句子除了主语和谓语外，还常常有其他成分:
宾语: 用来完成动词的意思，表示动作的对象，例如:
I study English.
Read the text.
定语: 用来修饰一个名词或代词。例如:
I have a red pencil.
状语: 用来修饰动词、形容词或副词，例如:
Does she work hard(努力)
英词各个句子成分在句子中都有比较固定的位置，一般只有一定词类的词才能作一定的句子成分。
动词 have 的人称变化
I have we have
you have you have
he has they have
she has they have
it has they have
含有引导词 there 的句子
英语表示某处有某人某物时常用带引导词 there 的句子，例如:
There is a picture on the wall.
There are fifteen students in our class.
这里 picture 和 students 是主语，is 和 are 是谓语，on the wall 和 in our class 是状语。如果主语是单数，用 there is; 如果主语是复数，则用 there are。 there is，there are 在句中无语句重音。

肯定式
There is a book on the desk.
There are some books on the desk.
否定式
There isn’t any book on the desk. There is no book on the desk.
There aren’t any books on the desk. There are no books on the desk.
疑问式及简略答语
Is there a book on the desk
Yes, there is.
No, there isn’t.
Are there any books on the desk
Yes, there are.
No, there aren’t.
物主代词
my(我的) our(我们的)
your(你的) your(你们的)
his(他的) their(他们的)
her(她的) their(她们的)
its(它的) their(它们的)
名词的单数和复数形式
英语中名词有单数和复数两种形式,如:a pencil (一枝铅笔), three pencils( 三枝铅笔), many pencils (许多枝铅笔)。
英语名词的复数形式一般是在单数形式后加词尾-s 构成,例如:
pen pens
peasant peasants
在以 “s”,“sh”,“ch”,“o“结尾的词后加-es。 例如:
class classes
brush brushes
bench benches
tomato tomatoes
在以“辅音字母+y”结尾的词后先变 y 为 i,再加es。例如:
family families
secretary secretaries
词尾 -(e)s 的读音如下:
(a)在清辅音后读作[s],
maps desks
(b)在浊辅音及元音后读作[z],
pens
rooms
windows
chairs
(c)在[s] [z] [1] [t1] [d3] 后面读作[iz],
classes
benches
brushes
pages
注意:末尾的[t][d]加词尾 -(e)s后成为破擦音[ts] [dz],例如:
students
spades
少数名词有特殊的复数形式,例如:
man men
woman women (妇女)
child children
knife knives
基数词1-20
1. one 11. eleven
2. two 12. twelve
3. three 13. thirteen
4. four 14. fourteen
5. five 15. fifteen
6. six 16. sixteen
7. seven 17. seventeen
8. eight 18. eighteen
9. nine 19. nineteen
10. ten 20. twenty
时刻表示法
英语表示时刻的方式如下:
1) 如果是整钟点，就用“钟点数+o'clock”这个形式(o'clock常可省去)，例如:
It is five o'clock. 现在是5点钟。
She gets up at six (o'clock).她6点起床。
2) 如果带分钟数，又不超过半小时，则用:“分钟数+past+钟点数”这个形式，这里past 是“过”的意思，表示“几点过几分”，例如:
five past two 2点5分
a quarter past seven 7点1刻
half past eight 8点半钟
3) 如果后面的分钟数超过半小时，则用“分钟数+to +钟点数”这个形式，这里to是“到”的意思，表示“几点差几分”，例如:
five to nine 8点55分(9点差5分)
ten to twelve 11点50分(12点差10分)
a quarter to seven 6点3刻(7点差1刻)
注意:表示“在某时刻”，用介词at，例如: at six， at a quarter to six。
1.动词的时态
在英语中，不同时间发生的动作或情况，要用不同的动词形式表示，例如:
He is a student. (他现在是学生。)
He was a worker. (他过去是工人。)
上面is， was原是一个动词，意思是“是”，在表示“现在是”的时候用is，在表示“过去是”时用was。 动词这种表示不同时间的动作或情况的形态，称为时态。时态是英语动词的一个重要特征，学习时要特别注意。
2.一般现在时
一般现在时表示:
1) 经常性的动作:
We get up at six.(指每天如此)
He works in a factory.(指他的职业)
2) 现在存在的情况或状态:
She is a nurse.
There is a map on the wall.
这个时态除第三人称单数外，都用动词原形表示。第三人称单数要加词尾(e)s。(e)s词尾的加法和名词复数词尾的加法相同，即:
1) 一般情况下加s，例如:live→lives， work→works
2) s在s，sh，ch，o后面加es，例如:
dress→dresses wash→washes
teach→teaches go→goes
3)以“辅音字母+y”结尾的动词，先变y为i，再加es，例如:
study→studies carry→carries
但以“元音字母+y”收尾的动词却不这样，直接加s，例如:play→plays
-(e)s词尾的读音规则是:
1) 在[s] [z] [1] [t1] [d3] 后面读 [iz]，例如:
dresses
teaches
judges (判断)
closes
washes
2) 在清辅音后读[s]，例如:
likes helps
3) 在浊辅音及元音后读[z]，例如:
sings goes studies
注意:末尾的[t][d]加词尾(e)s后成为破擦音[ts][dz]，例如:
writes reads
一般动词一般现在时的肯定式、否定式和疑问式
肯定式: I(You) work here.
He(She) works here.
We(You/They) work here.
否定式: I (You) don’t work here.
He(She) doesn’t works here.
We(You/They) don’t work here.
疑问式: Do I(you) work here
Does he(she) work here
Do we(you/they) work here

动词be一般现在时的肯定式、否定式和疑问式
肯定式: I am a student.
You are a student.
He(She) is a student.
We(You/They) are students.
否定式: I am not a student.
You aren't a student.
He(She) isn't a student.
We(You/They) aren't students.
疑问式: Am I a student
Are you a student
Is he(she) a student
Are we(you/they) students
注意:(1)一般现在时的否定式有两种构成法。一般动词的否定式是在动词前加“助动词do (does) + not”构成，后面动词要用原形，例如:
They do not (don't) go there every day.
She does not (doesn't) study here.
do not 和does not 在口语中缩合为don't 和doesn't。
动词be 的否定式是在后面加not 构成。are not和 is not在口语中缩合为aren't 和isn't。
(2)动词have的疑问式有两种构成方法。如果表示“占有”，“所有”，则用Have you... 这个形式，例如：
Have you a red pencil (Yes, I have.)
Has she any sisters (No, she has no sisters.)
如果have用在have supper(吃晚饭),have a rest(休息)等常用词组中，则用Do you have... 这种形式，例如：
Do you have supper at six (Yes, we do.)
Does he have a shortrest after lunch (No,he doesn't.)
have的否定式也同样有have (has) not 和do (does)not have两种。have not 和has not 在口语中缩合为haven't和hasn't。
3.一般问句
就某一情况是否是事实提出疑问，可以用一般问句。这种问句一般现在时的结构是：助动词do(does)＋主语＋动词原形＋其他部分。例如：
Do you study here Yes, I do.
Does your father work in a factory No, he doesn't.
如果谓语中包含有动词be，则将它放在主语前面，例如：
Are you a first?year student Yes, I am.
Is your sister a nurse No, she isn't.
如果谓语是there is (are),则将它的语序颠倒，例如：
Is there a map on the wall No, there isn't.
Are there any factories in the commune(公社) Yes， there are.
这种问句用升调，回答时先说Yes或No，再给简略回答。
4.名词所有格
在表示“贝蒂的父亲”，“我姐姐的丈夫”这种意思时，我们常可以在Betty,(my)sister这种名词后加 's(apostrophe s)，来表示所有关系，例如：
Betty's father
my sister's husband
Chairman Mao's works
这里带's的形式称为名词所有格。如果这个名词带有复数词尾(e)s，则只加“'”，例如：
workers' families
teachers' reading room
但不带(e)s词尾的复数名词仍要加 's，例如：
children's books women's dresses
一般说来，只有表示有生命东西(特别是人)的名词，才能用这种形式表示所有关系。表示无生命东西的名词，通常用带of的短语表示所有关系，例如：
students of new China
the monitor of Class Five
teachers of our school
但某些表示时间的名词也可以用所有格。例如：
today's newspaper (今天的报纸)
the week's work (这星期的工作)
yesterday's meeting (昨天的会议)
１．特殊问句
问“谁……”，“什么……”，“在哪里……”等这一类的问句叫做特殊问句。这种问句以疑问词开头，用降调。
疑问词有两类，一是疑问代词，一是疑问副词。疑问代词有：who, whom (who 的宾格),whose(谁的)，what, which (哪一个)等。疑问副词有：when, where, how, why(为什么)等。
特殊问句的语序在多数情况下和一般问句是一样的，只是疑问词和它所修饰的名词或形容词要放在句首。例如：
When does Wang Ching get up
（比较:Does Wang Ching get up at six )
Where do they come from
(比较:Do they come from Shanghai )
What do you do after lunch
(比较：Do you take a short rest after lunch )
How do you like the film
(比较：Do you like the film )
What language does she study
(比较：Does she study German )
Which class is he in
(比较：Is he in Class Five )
How many pictures are there on the wall
(比较：Are there any pictures on the wall )
Whose textbook is this
(比较：Is this your textbook )
如果疑问词表示的是主语，或是修饰主语，这时问句一般用陈述句语序，例如：
Who lives in this room
(比较：Li Ying lives in this room.)
How many comrades live in this room
(比较：Four comrades live in this room.)
２．对各种句子成分提问举例：
例 A：Wang Ching reviews his English lessons in the reading room every evening.
（1）对主语提问：
Who reviews his English lessons in the reading room every evening ?
（2）对谓语提问：
What does Wang Ching do every evening
（3）对宾语提问：
What does Wang Ching review every evening
（4）对定语提问：
What lessons does Wang Ching review every evening
(5) 对状语提问：
When does Wang Ching review his English lessons
Where does Wang Ching review his English lessons
注意：(1)对主语提问时一般用陈述句语序，不加助动词。
(2)对其他句子成分提问时要加助动词，后面的动词要用原形。
(3)对定语提问时，它所修饰的词要跟着一起提到前面来。
例 B：The teacher's room is on the second floor.
(1) 对表语提问：
Where is the teacher’s room
(2)对定语提问：
Whose room is on the second floor
３．基数词
导学
英语基数词不算难。第一步学会
1—100;
第二步学会
1,000—1,000,000;
第三步学会
年份的读法。
努力学之可也。
表示数目的词称为基数词，英语中的基数词，最基本的是下面这些：
1 one 11 eleven
2 two 12 twelve 20 twenty
3 three 13 thirteen 30 thirty
4 four 14 fourteen 40 forty
5 five 15 fifteen 50 fifty
6 six 16 sixteen 60 sixty
7 seven 17 seventeen 70 seventy
8 eight 18 eighteen 80 eighty
9 nine 19 nineteen 90 ninety
10 ten 100 one(a)hundred
1’000 one(a)thousand
10’000 ten thousand
100’000 one(a)hundred thousand
1’000’000 one(a)million

其他表示数目的词都由这些词构成，例如：
23 twenty-three
459 four hundred and fifty-nine
1,003 one thousand and three
12,386 twelve thousand three hundred and eighty-six
650,000,000 six hundred and fifty million
注意：(1) 二十以上的数字在个位与十位之间要用连字符号(-)；三位以上的数，在十位之前(如无十位则在个位之前)要加and,例如：
twenty-three; four hundred and fifty-nine
(2) 以-teen 收尾的数词有两个重音，以-ty收尾的数词只第一音节有重音，例如：
thirteen ［#82:#ti:n］, twenty ［#twenti］
(3) 注意:hundred, thousand, million 等词在具体的数字中一般都不加复数词-s,例如：
two hundred students, five thousand people,
six million copies(册)
(4) 年份读法：
1961 nineteen sixty-one
1949 nineteen forty-nine
1917 nineteen seven-teen
1905 nineteen hundred and five (或nineteen o five)
４．非人称it
It可以用来表示时间、季节、天气，在句子中作为主语，称为非人称it，例如：
It is eight o'clock in the morning.
It is autumn now.
It is hot in summer.
It often rains here.
1.现在进行时
现在进行时通常表示此时此刻或当前一个时期内正在进行的活动，例如：
We are having an English class. (我们在上英语课。)
She is reading today's newspaper. (她在看今天的报纸。)
She is staying with her sister. (她目前在她姐姐家住。)
现在进行时由“助动词 be + 现在分词”构成，be 和主语在人称和数上要一致。
现在进行时和一般现在时不同，前者表示正在进行的活动，后者表示经常性的活动，例如：
They are working on the farm. (他们正在农场劳动。)
They often work on the farm. (他们常常在农场劳动，但此时不一定在农场劳动。)
Is she having supper (她在吃晚饭吗 )
Does she have supper at six (她通常是6点吃晚饭吗 )
现在进行时的肯定式、否定式和疑问式
肯定式: I am reading.
You are reading.
He(She) is reading.
We(You/They) are reading.
否定式: I am not reading.
You aren't reading.
He(She) isn't reading.
We(You/They) aren't reading
疑问式: Am I reading
Are you reading
Is he(she) reading
Are we(you/they) reading
2. 现在分词的构成法?
现在分词是由动词原形加词尾-ing 构成的：
1) 在一般情形下直接加-ing, 例如：reading, playing。
2) 以不读音的e 结尾的词，去掉e， 再加ing, 例如：come→coming, have→having
3) 以重读闭音节结尾，最后又只有一个辅音字母的词，双写这一字母，再加-ing, 例如：get →getting, begin→beginning。
注意下面几种现在分词的读音：
1) studying ［#st7dii9］, carrying ［#k*rii9］
2) preparing ［pri#p52ri9］
3) singing ［#si9i9］, bringing ［#bri9i9］
3.“be going + 动词不定式”的用法
表示打算(预备)做某事，常可用 be going to 这个句型，例如：
Are you going to take part in the parade (你准备去参加游行吗 )
I am going to write to her this afternoon. (我打算下午给她写封信.)
When are they going to have the meeting (他们准备什么时候开会 )
这里 go 已没有“去”的意思，而与后面的不定式一起构成谓语。“be going”通常不重读。
注意：这种结构后面一般不用 go, come 等动词，若要表示“准备去”，“就要来”这类意思时，可以直接用这些动词的现在进行时，例如：
I am going to town this afternoon. (我打算今天下午进城。)
John is coming tomorrow. (John 明天就要来了。)
1. 反意问句
当提问的人有一定主见，但不完全肯定，需要问一下加以证实时，用反意问句。这种问句由两部分构成，前一部分是一个陈述句，后一部分是一个简短问句。如果前面肯定，后面就用否定形式。反之，如果前面否定，后面就用肯定形式。前后两者的谓语，在时态、人称、数上都要一致。回答方式和一般问句的答语相同。例如：
Your room is on the second floor, isn't it Yes, it is. (你的房间在三层，是吧 是的。)
You go there once a week, don't you Yes, we do. (你们一星期去一次，是不是 是的。)
Mary doesn't know French, does she No, she doesn't. (Mary 不懂法文，对吧 对，她不懂法文。)
Robert isn't coming, is he No, he isn't. (Robert 不来了，是吧 是的，不来了。)
2. Yes 和 No 的用法
英语 Yes 和 No 的用法和汉语习惯不同。英语不论是否同意问者的看法，只要答语本身是肯定的，就用 Yes；只要答语本身是否定的，就用 No。汉语则与之相反。
You aren't a first year student, are you Yes, I am. (你不是一年级学生吧 不对，我是一年级学生。)
You aren't a second year student, are you No, I am not. (你不是二年级学生吧 对，我不是二年级学生。)
3. 序数词?
表示数目顺序的词称为序数词。由“第一”到“第二十”的序数词列表如下：
one first
two second
three third
four fourth
five fifth
six sixth
seven eventh
eight eighth
nine ninth
ten tenth
eleven eleventh
twelve twelfth
thirteen thirteenth
fourteen fourteenth
fifteen fifteenth
sixteen sixteenth
seventeen seventeenth
eighteen eighteenth
nineteen nineteenth
twenty twentieth
注意：(1) 除 one, two , three 相应的序数词各为 first, second, third 以外，其他序数词都是在基数词后加上-th 构成。但必须注意上表中有# 的序数词(即 fifth, eighth, ninth, twelfth, twentieth 等词)的拼法和读音。
(2) 注意 twenty 以上整十位数序数词是将 -ty中的y变为i再加eth构成，它们的读音比相应的基数词多一个音节。如：
thirty — thirtieth (由双音节变为三音节)
(3) 注意第二十一等序数词的表示法：
第二十一： twenty-first
第二十三： twenty-third
(4) 序数词前面一般要用定冠词 the, 例如：
the second floor
the twelfth week
注：凡编号的东西，都可以用基数词表示顺序，例如：
Lesson Fifteen Page 135
Grade Three Room 204
Bus No.17
4. 介词短语的句法作用
介词和它后面的名词(即介词宾语)组成介词短语，例如 in the park, under a tree。介词的宾语如果是人称代词，则必须用宾格，例如 before him, to them。介词短语在句中可以用作：
1) 状语：
They are planting trees by the lake.
Our Party Secretary is talking with the students.
2) 定语：
Those pictures on the right are very nice.
How do you like your life at college
3) 表语：
Betty Brown's father is often out of work. (失业).
The children are all in bed now. (孩子们都睡觉了。)
有些介词可和一个不及物动词构成短语，作用和一个及物动词一样，例如：
What are you looking at (你们在看什么 )
What are you looking for (你在找什么 )
Who is looking after the children (谁在照管孩子 )
1. 一般将来时
一般将来时表示将来要发生的事情。
一般将来时由助动词 will (shall)加动词原形构成。 shall 用于第一人称, will 用于第二、三人称,例如:
We shall have a report on current affairs next Saturday.
The meeting will soon be over.
There will be a football match tomorrow.
一般将来时的肯定式、否定式和疑问式
肯定式：I(We) shall go.
You(He/She/They) will go.
否定式：I(We) shall not go.
You(He/She/They) will not go.
疑问式：Shall I(we) go
Will you(he/she/they) go.
will 也常用于第一人称。在口语中 will 常缩合为'll。shall not 和 will not 分别缩合为 shan't和 won't,例如:
I'll wait for you at the bus-stop.
She'll be here at five.
We shan't be out tomorrow.
They won't go home this week.
常与将来时连用的时间状语有 today (今天),this afternoon (今天下午), tonight (今晚), tomorrow (明天), the day after tomorrow (后天), tomorrow morning (明天早晨), this Sunday (本星期日), next week (下周), in a few days (months, years) (几天、几月、几年以后)等等。
注意 Shall I (we)... Will you... 的习惯用法:
“Shall I (we)... ”是自己准备做某事,征求对方意见时用的,相当于汉语中“我这样做好吗 ”。例如:
“It is very cold here. Shall I close the window ”
回答可以是:
“Yes, please.” 或:
“No, please don't.”
“Will you... ” 是在提出建议、请求问对方是否愿意时用的,相当于汉语中“你愿意不 ”。例如:
“I am going to the reading room. Will you come with me ”
回答可以是:
“Yes, I will.” 或
“I am sorry. I can't.”(对不起,我不能去。)等。
2. 名词的种类
名词可以分为专有名词和普通名词两大类。China, Britain (英国), Brown 等是专有名词；专有名词以外的名词则是普通名词。普通名词又可分为可数名词和不可数名词。可以计数的名词如 woman, desk, family 等称为可数名词,有单数和复数两种形式。不可以计数的名词如 work, paper, weather 等称为不可数名词,一般没有复数形式。
3. 冠词基本用法
冠词分定冠词(the) 与不定冠词 (a, an) 两种。
1) 定冠词 the 在以元音开头的词前面读 [6i],在以辅音开头的词前面读[62] ,例如: the old woman, the classroom。
定冠词的意思接近指示代词 this, that, 表示后面名词所指的是某个或某些特定的人或事物,可用于各种普通名词前面:
Close the door, please. (指所在房间的门。)
Please write the words on the blackboard. (指某几个特定的字和本教室的黑板。)
He will speak about the situation in Africa. (指非洲而不是其他地方的形势。)
这种情况称为“特指”。在特指的情况下,无论是可数名词或是不可数名词,是单数名词还是复数名词,都需要加the。与特指相对,并不指某个(或某些)特定的人或事物的情况称为“泛指”。
2) 不定冠词 a 用于以辅音开头的词前面, an 用于以元音开头的词前面。例如: a lesson, an English lesson。
不定冠词是“一个”的意思,只能用在单数可数名词前面,表示某一类人或事物,以区别于其他类。例如:
Will you give me a pencil (指任何一枝铅笔。)
She is an English writer. (指英国作家中的一个。)
3) 一件事物第一次提到时,如果它是可数名词单数,常用不定冠词,而再次提到它时却需要用定冠词,因为这时已经是特指了,例如:
There will be a report on current affairs this afternoon. (第一次提到,泛指)
In the evening we shall discuss the report. (第二次提到,特指)
4) 一些不用冠词的情况:
a) 泛指的复数名词前不用冠词,例如:
They are planting trees.
These are books on history.
b) 不可数名词用于泛指的时候不用冠词, 例如:
They play an important part in socialist construction.
It's lovely weather.
This is nice paper.
c) 在专有名词前一般不用冠词,例如:
China, Beijing University (大学)。
但有些由普通名词构成的专有名词却要加定冠词:
the People's Daily
the Red Star (星) People's Commune
d) 在某些习惯用法中不加冠词,例如:
go to school (上学), go to town, at home, after class, go by bus, play football。
冠词的基本用法可以简单地归纳如下:
普通名词：
可数名词单数
Give me a book.（泛指）
Give me the book.（特指）
可数名词复数
Give me some books.（泛指）
These are books on history.（泛指）
Give me the books.（特指）
不可数名词
Give me some paper.（泛指）
This is nice paper.（泛指）
Give me the paper.（特指）
专有名词：一般不用冠词,如: China, Brown。
某些由普通名词构成的专有名词多加 the, 如: the Red Star People's Commune。
1. 情态动词 can, may, must
can, may, must 是英语中最常用的几个情态动词。它们本身不表示动作，只是说明“能不能”，“可不可以”，“应该不应该”等等；表示动作的是它们后面的原形动词。
can, may, must 没有人称变化，在句子中通常不重读，但在句首或句末时却应重读。
1) can（重读［k*n］，弱读 ［k2n］）表示能力或可能性（即客观上是否允许），例如：
Who can translate the sentence into English （能力）
Can you say that in English Yes, I can（能力）
I can come again tonight（可能性）
can 的否定形式是 cannot，口语中多缩合为 can't。
2) may 表示“可以”，多用在问句中来征求对方的许可，在回答时多半不用它，以免显得不客气，例如：
May I come in Yes, please.
May I borrow your pen Certainly (当然).
May (Can) we take the books out Please don't.
may 也可用在陈述句中,表示“许可”,例如:
You may (can) go now.
在许多场合下 can 可以代替 may, 特别是在和较熟的人说话的时候。
3) must (重读［m7st］，弱读［m2st］ )表示“必须”， “应该”，例如：
We must speak more English.（我们应当更多地说英语。）
You must all come early tomorrow morning.（你们明天上午都必须早来。）
在回答以must引起的问句时，否定的回答要用 needn't （不必），例如：
Must we hand in the exercise books today
Yes, you must. No, you needn't.
must 的否定形式是 must not, 常缩合为 mustn't，表示“不许可”“禁止”的意思,例如:
You mustn't take the books out. (你们不准把书拿出去。)
注意：情态动词本身即可说明将来的情况,因此前面不要再加助动词 shall 或 will, 例如：
May I do it tomorrow
We must go and cheer for our team this afternoon.
2. 不定代词 some, any, no
some, any, no 是不定代词。some, any 是“一些”的意思； some 一般地用于肯定句, any 用于疑问句及否定句, 例如:
Let's put up some new pictures.
There aren't any pictures on that wall.
Have you any questions
no 可用来代替 not any, 例如:
I have no (= I haven't any) questions.
There are no (= There aren't any) new words in this paragraph.
另外, some, any, no 还和 body, one, thing 构成合成代词:
somebody anybody nobody
someone anyone no one
something anything nothing
和 some, any, no 一样,由 some 构成的合成代词通常用于肯定句, 由any构成的合成代词用于否定句和疑问句,由 no 构成的合成代词用于否定句, 例如:
Somebody (= Someone) wants to see you.
Can anyone (= anybody) answer the question in English
I don't know anybody in town.
No one (= Nobody) will be here tonight.
She is writing something for the wall newspaper.
Does Robert know anything about it
I know nothing (= don't know anything) about it.
这些词用作主语时动词都用第三人称单数形式。
注: every 也可以构成这类合成代词: everybody, everyone, everything。 例如:
We must get everything ready tonight.
Everybody (= Everyone) wants to read that book.
一般过去时
一般过去时是用来表示过去发生的事情或存在的情况的,例如:
We worked in the countryside last month. (我们上月在乡下劳动。)
Lu Hsun lived in this house forty years ago. (鲁迅四十年前曾住过这所房子。)
I came to Peking in 1955. (我是1955年来到北京的。)
She was in the army when I first met her. (当我第一次碰见她的时候,她在部队里工作。)
注意:即使刚刚发生的情况,通常也要用一般过去时,例如:
She was here a moment (一会儿) ago. (她刚才还在这里。)
I got the letter this morning. (我今天早上收到这封信。)
在单句中常与一般过去时连用的时间状语有:
last night(week, month, year, Friday), yesterday, the day before yesterday (前天),yesterday morning(afternoon, evening), at that time, in 1921, before liberation (解放), an hour(two days, a few weeks, three years) ago, etc.
一般过去时是由动词的过去式表示的。大多数动词的过去式是动词原形加词尾 -ed 构成,这种动词称为规则动词。词尾 -ed 的加法如下:
1) 一般情况直接加ed: work→worked, play→played
2) 以 e 结尾的词只加d: live→lived, dance→danced
3) 以“辅音字母 + y”结尾的词,变 y 为 i 再加 -ed: study→studied, carry→carried
4) 以重读闭音节结尾,且末尾只有一个辅音字母的词,先将这字母双写, 再加 -ed: chat→chatted, plan→planned
-ed 的读音规则是:
1) 在清辅音后一般读 [t]: looked [lukt], helped [helpt]
2) 在浊辅音及元音后一般读[d]: listened[#lisnd], borrowed[#b0r2ud]
3) 在[t],[d]后读[id]: planted[#pl4:ntid], handed[#h*ndid]
此外, 有很多动词不以末尾加 -ed 的方式构成过去时,这种动词称为不规则动词:
1) be 的过去式有 was, were 两个形式, was 用于第一、第三人称单数,其他情况用 were。动词过去式除be以外都没有人称变化。
2) 情态动词 can, may, must 的过去式分别为could[kud], might [mait] 和 must。
3) 其他已学过的不规则动词的过去式列表如下:
begin→began bring→brought come→came
do→did fly→flew get→got
give→gave go→went have→had
hear→heard keep→kept know→knew
leave→left let→let make→made
meet→met pay→paid put→put
read→read[red] say→said[sed]
see→saw set→set sing→sang
sit→sat sleep→slept speak→spoke
stand→stood sweep→swept take→took
teach→taught tell→told write→wrote
一般动词一般过去时的肯定式、否定式和疑问式
肯定式: I(You/He/She/We/You/They) worked there.
否定式: I(You/He/She/We/You/They) didn’t work there.
疑问式: Did I(you/he/she/we/you/they) work there
动词 be一般过去时的肯定式、否定式和疑问式
肯定式: I(He/She) was there.
You(We/They) were there.
否定式: I(He/She) wasn't there.
You(We/They) weren't there.
疑问式: Was I(he/she) there
Were you(we/they) there
注: didn't 是 did not 的缩合形式，wasn't和 weren't分别为 was not 和 were not 的缩合形式。
1.简单句、并列句和复合句
句子可以分为简单句、并列句和复合句:
1) 简单句:
一个句子如果只包含一个主谓结构就是简单句,例如:
I must pay attention to my spelling.
有时句子虽长, 但只有一个主谓结构, 仍是简单句, 例如:
Yesterday we went to an exhibition on the life and work of Lenin, the great revolutionary leader of the working class.
有时一个句子有两个(或两个以上)并列的主语或谓语, 也仍然是简单句, 例如:
There he was a leader of the student movement and took an active part in revolutionary work.
Both the teachers and the students were very active in physical labour.
Comrade Yang and I often study together and help each other.
2) 并列句:
一个句子如果包含两个或更多的互不依从的主谓结构, 就称为并列句。例如:
He was always close to the people, and the people loved him.
I didn't make any mistakes in the test, but my handwriting was poor.
Some are walking by the lake, others are sitting on the benches and chatting.
并列的各个部分(即各个主谓结构)称为分句。各个分句用并列连词(如 and, but 等)连接；在上下文紧密联系的情况下也可不用连词, 而以逗号隔开(如上面第三句)。
3) 复合句:
一个句子中, 如果有一个或更多的成分是主谓结构, 这个句子就称为复合句。例如:
I hope (希望) you will help me with my grammar. (作宾语)
He took full notes while he read. (作状语)
My idea is that we go by bicycle. (作表语)
这种作为一个句子成分的主谓结构称为从句(以别于主句,即全句的主要部分)。按照句法作用的不同,从句又可分为主语从句、宾语从句、定语从句、状语从句、表语从句等等。
注:如果一个并列句中某一分句是一个复合句,这种句子称为并列复合句。例如:
He was very busy, but he said he would come.
2. 状语从句
英语中带状语从句的复合句是很多的。状语从句有的表示时间,有的表示原因、条件等等,因此也可以分为时间状语从句、条件状语从句、原因状语从句等等,例如:
1) 时间状语从句:
After he finished school there, he went to the University of Kazan.
We lived in the peasants' homes when we were in the countryside.
She was in Nanjing before she came here.
Every time the cock began to crow, he would shout: “Get up, you lazy bones!”
2) 条件状语从句:
If you have any questions, write them on a slip of paper.
3) 原因状语从句:
He didn't come to class because he was ill.
此外还有“结果”“目的”等等状语从句。状语从句大多数都由从属连词(如after, when, because, if 等)引起。由这种词引起的主谓结构不能成为独立的句子,只能作状语从句。连词在句中一般不重读,但在句首可以重读。
在使用状语从句时要注意:
1) 状语从句本身结构必须完整, 不能没有主语, 例如:
After he took the medicine, he felt better. (吃了药之后他就感到好些了。)
Come again when you have time. (有空的时候请再来。)
2) 状语从句如在主句的后面,可以不必用逗号隔开；如在主句之前, 一般要用逗号。例如:
It was already eight o'clock when we got home.
When we got home, it was already eight o'clock.
3) 在时间和条件状语从句中不用“一般将来时”, 而以“一般现在时”代替它, 例如:
I'll tell her about that when I see her.
Take the medicine before you go to bed.
We'll go to the Summer Palace tomorrow if it doesn't rain.
1.不定式短语的句法作用
不定式或不定式短语可以担任种种句子成分,它可以用作宾语、状语、定语,也可以构成复合宾语,也可以作主语、表语:
1) 作宾语:
在某些动词(如like, want, decide, remember, begin, learn 等)后面常可用不定式短语作宾语,例如:
We learned to do farm work there.
Don't forget to turn off the light before you go.
They decided to have a sports meet on June 5.
在某些动词如 tell, show, know, teach后还可以用“疑问词(how, what, when, where 等)+不定式(短语)”作宾语,例如:
I’ll show you how to do it.
Can you tell me how to get there
She didn’t know where to get the book.
2) 构成复合宾语:
在某些动词如ask, tell, want, help 等后可以用“名词(代词)+不定式(或不定式短语)”作宾语,例如:
They helped the peasants to get in the crops.
The teacher asked Wang Ying to translate the sentence.
Tell him not to worry about his studies.
在另一些动词(如let, see, make, watch 等)后面也可用这种结构,但不用“to”,例如:
The Party secretary’s words made me think.
One night Kao Yupao saw the landlord steal into the courtyard.
The parents watched the children dance.
3) 作定语:
不定式短语可以用作定语,一般都紧跟在它所修饰的名词后面:
The landlord gave the farmhands little to eat.
Have you any questions to ask
It’s time to start for the fields.
4) 作状语:
She will come to see you this evening.
They went there to see a basket ball match.
5) 作主语或表语:
It is good to do morning exercises every day. (作主语)
My idea is to do the work in small groups.(作表语)
2.介词用法小结
英语介词很多,每个介词又有很多用法,根据词义大体上可以归纳为三类。
1) 表示位置关系的介词,例如:
in(在内): What is there in the desk
He will speak about the political situation in Africa.
on(在上面): Put the knife on that table.
The students’ rooms are on the second floor.
at(在某地点): Let’s meet at the bus stop.
A table stands at the window.
out of(出来): Some Pioneers are coming out of a park.?
into(进入): Let’s go into the auditorium.
around(在周围): We are going to plant trees around the lake.
behind(在后面): Who sits behind you
above(在上方): There is a picture above the blackboard.
under(在下方): The children are playing under a huge pine tree.
near(在附近): He is from a small town near Nanking.
between(在两者中间): There is going to be a football match between our college team and the Peking University team.
by(靠近,在旁): Come and sit by me.
from(从,离): The park isn’t far from our school.
to(到): Are you going to the concert on Sunday
2) 表示时间关系的介词,例如:
in(在一段时间内): in the morning, in August, in winter, in 1961
(在一段时间后): in a few days, in two years
on(在某一天等): on October 1, on weekdays, on Saturday evening
at (在某时刻): at five o'clock, at a quarter to two, at that time, at dawn, at noon, at midnight
after(在……之后): after breakfast, after class, after a week of work
before(在……之前): before 12 o'clock, before Tuesday, before liberation
for(延续多久): for an hour, for three hours and a half, for a year
from...till或from...to(从某时起到某时止): from morning till night, from half past two to six o’clock
3)表示其他关系的介词,例如:
with(和……在一起): Who will go with me
for(为了,作……之用): We study for the people.
of(表示所有关系或部分与整体的关系): students of new China, some of you, three of them
in(在……中): Women play an important part in our socialist construction.
besides(除了): Besides English newspapers, we have newspapers from many other countries.
like(像): The people's commune is like the morning sun.
about(关于): This is a story about Africa.
此外,介词常和其他词构成固定的词组,如go for a walk, go by bicycle, wait for, look for, listen to 等。这些应分别加以记忆。
1. 现在完成时
现在完成时主要有三种用法:
1) 表示一个已经发生但对现在情况有影响的动作,例如:
He has gone to town. 他进城去了。(说明他现在不在这里。)
Someone has turned off the light. 有人把灯关了。(说明现在房里是黑的。)
We have planted some trees around the building. 我们在楼周围种了些树。(说明现在房子的周围有树了。)
2) 表示从过去某时到现在这段时间中发生的事情,例如:
We have learned six hundred words this term. 我们这学期学了600个单词。(说明学期开始到现在这段时期发生的事情。)
They have built hundreds of houses in the past three years. 三年以来他们修建了千百座房子。(说明过去三年里发生的情况。)
Great changes have taken place in China since liberation. 解放以来中国发生了巨大的变化。(说明从解放到现在发生的情况。)
3) 表示一个由过去某时继续到现在的动作或状态,例如:
I have lived here for four years. 我在这里住四年了。
He has been in the People's Liberation Army since 1945. 他从1945年起就一直在人民解放军里。
注: 只有少数动词(如 live, work, study, wait , be 等)适用于第三种情况。
现在完成时是由“助动词have (has) 加过去分词”构成的。规则动词的过去分词和过去式形态相同,例如:
原形 过去式 过去分词
live lived lived
study studied studied
plan planned planned
不规则动词的过去分词有各种不同的形式。现将学过的不规则动词的过去式和过去分词形式列表如下:
原形/过去式/过去分词
be/was,were/been
begin/began/begun
bring/brought/brought
build/built/built
buy/bought/bought
catch/caught/caught
cut/cut/cut
do/did/done
eat/ate/eaten
fall/fell/fallen
feel/felt/felt
forget/forgot/forgotten
get/got/got
give/gave/given
go/went/gone
have/had/had
hear/heard/heard
keep/kept/kept
know/knew/known
lead/led/led
let/let/let
pay/paid/paid
make/made/made
meet/met/met
put/put/put
read/read/read
run/ran/run
say/said/said
see/saw/seen
sell/sold/sold
set/set/set
show/showed/shown
sing/sang/sung
sit/sat/sat
sleep/slept/slept
speak/spoke/spoken
spring/sprang/sprung
stand/stood/stood
steal/stole/stolen
sweep/swept/swept
take/took/taken
teach/taught/taught
tell/told/told
write/wrote/written
2. 现在完成时和一般过去时的比较
一般过去时表示过去发生的事情,现在完成时也表示过去发生的事情,但两者的着重点不同。一般过去时只表示过去发生的事情本身,不涉及与现在的关系;现在完成时则强调过去某事对现在造成的影响,主要是在说明现在的情况。
现在完成时:
I have seen the film. (说明对影片内容是了解的。)
Who has opened the window (窗子现在是开着的。)
How long has she worked there (问到现在为止工作了多久。)
一般过去时:
I saw the film in Shanghai. (说明当时看电影的地点。)
Who opened the window (曾经有人打开过窗子,但现在可能又关上了。)
How long did she work there (问过去在那里工作了一段多长的时间。)
有时同一动作,由于说话目的不同,可能用不同的时态,例如:
Have you had your breakfast
Yes, I have.?
Where did you have your breakfast
I had it in town.
谈的都是“吃早饭”这一动作，但前后用了两种时态，这是因为说第一句话时想到的是现在的情况(“如果还没有吃,就在这里吃。”)，而后面那句只问及动作本身。
以上是两个时态的基本区别。另外,有时还可从时间状语的使用上来判断该用哪个时态。只要用了表示过去某一时间的状语,就一概不能用现在完成时,因为这些状语使我们想到的是过去的情况,而不是现在的情况。用现在完成时的句子,或是不包含时间状语,或是包含下面这类状语:
1) already, (not) yet, just, never, ever 等表示不定时间的状语:
He has just come back from the Soviet Union.
She hasn't finished her work yet.
Have you ever seen that picture
2) 表示包括现在在内的过去一段时间的状语,如: today, this morning, this week, since 1943,since liberation, for three months, for a long time, in the past few years 等:
We have had two classes this morning. (说这话时还是上午。)
They have been close friends ever since 1943.
She has made great progress in the past few months.
I haven't seen him for a long time.
注: have gone 指“到某地去了”(现在还在那里),如果说“去过某地,而现在已经回来”, 要用 have been 表示。例如:
Where have you been — I've been to the co-op.
Has she ever been to Nanjing — No, she hasn't.
现完成时的肯定式、否定式和疑问式
肯定式: I(You/We/They) have read it.
He(She) has read it.
否定式: I(You/We/They) haven’t read it.
He(She) hasn’t read it.
疑问式: Have I(you/we/they) read it.
Has he(she) read it.
选择问句
提出两种情况,需要弄清哪一种对,用选择问句,例如:
Is he British or American (他是英国人还是美国人 )
这种问句的语序和一般问句相同,并列的两部分用连词 or 连接起来,但须注意 or 连接的是句法作用相同的成分,例如:
Are you going by boat or by bus (状语)
(I’m going by boat.)
Do you want this book or that one (宾语)
(I want that one.)
Is it an English film or (a) French (film) (表语)
(It’s an English film.)
Shall I keep the book or pass it on to (传给) Jack (谓语)
(Please pass it on to Jack.)
1．几种标点符号的基本用法
1. 一个句子末尾必须有一个句号(full stop), 问号 (question mark) 或惊叹号 (exclamatory mark)。问句后用问号,惊叹句后用惊叹号,其他情况用句号。例如:
What do you see over there
What a beautiful city Beijing is!
There are still five minutes to go.
注意:1) 英文句号要用实心点,不要用小圈。
2) 直接引语如果是问句或惊叹句,尽管后面跟有 he said 这样的话,仍然可以用问或惊叹号，例如:
“Are you from the South ” he asked.
“What a wonderful film this is!”she exclaimed.
但引语如果是陈述句,则末尾不用句号,而用逗号,例如:
“I'll be back in a minute,” he said.
3) 间接引语内的问句不要用问号。例如:
He asked where that man was.
2. 逗号(comma) 用在句子中间,表示一定的停顿:
1) 用在位于句首的状语从句后。例如:
When I got there, they were already in the fields.
(比较They were already in the fields when I got there.)
2) 用在并列句内的分句之间。例如:
We were rather slow at first, but soon we learnt to work faster.
3) 用在一个句子的各并列成分之间,例如:
She bought a towel, some soap, a bottle of ink, a pair of socks and some envelopes.(连接并列的宾语)
Tom jumped out of bed, put on his clothes, ate his breakfast and then went to school.(连接并列的谓语)
注意:最后两个并列成分间多用and 连接,一般不加逗号。
4) 用在同位语和插入语的前后,例如:
Comrade Wang, head of the English Department, is going to speak to us tonight.(同位语)
This book, I'm sure, will be a great success.(插入语)
5) 用在其他场合,例如:
Yes, I was there.
He was born on April 2, 1940.
注意: 汉语中逗号的使用比英语广泛,汉语用逗号收尾的地方,在英语中往往独立成句,末尾要用句号。例如:
今晚有电影,你去吗
There'll be a film tonight. (这时不能用逗号) Are you going
这是一个星期六的下午,操场上有成千的学生,运动会就要开始了。
It was a Saturday afternoon. There were hundreds and hundreds of students on the sportsground. The sports meet was about to begin. (原文两处逗号,译文都用句号。)
2．大写规则
大写的主要规则如下:
1) 一个句子的第一个词一律要大写(指这个词的第一个字母,下同)。
2) 专有名词要大写,但里面的虚词(即冠词、连词、介词)一般不大写。例如:
Long live the People's Republic of China! (the, of 不大写)
3) 由专有名词变来的形容词要大写。例如:
Chinese, African
4) 书刊名称及文章标题要大写,但里面的虚词一般不大写。例如:
U.S. News and World Report (and 不大写)
5) 诗歌和每一行第一个词要大写,不管这一行是否开始新的一句。
6) 月份及周日名称要大写,但四季名称不大写。例如: February, Tuesday (但 spring, summer不大写)
1．形容词和副词的比较级和最高级
英语形容词和副词的比较级和最高级有两种构成方法:一种是加后缀-er,-est; 一种是在前面加副词 more, most。
1. 加后缀-er,-est (适用于单音节词和一部分双音节词):
原级 比较级 最高级
long longer longest
late later latest
happy happier happiest
big bigger biggest
2. 加副词more, most (适用于多音节词和一部分双音节词):
原级
interesting
beautiful
exact
actively
比较级
more interesting
more beautiful
more exact
more actively
最高级
most interesting
most beautiful
most exact
most actively
3. 少数的形容词和副词的比较级和最高级有特殊形式:
原级 比较级 最高级
good/well better best
bad/ill worse worst
many/much more most
little less least
2．使用比较级和最高级的句子结构
对于比较级,可用以 than 引起的状语从句,说明与什么相比:
She is older than I (am).
(注意 than 是连词,不是介词,在本句中不可以用 me。)
She got up earlier today than (she did) yesterday.
It rains more often in summer than (it does) in autumn.
There are more cotton mills here than (there are) in my home town.
He worked faster than we had expected.
但是,在很多情况下,说话双方都是很清楚地知道所比较的对象的,因此可以不用带 than 的结构,例如:
She did much better today.
Are you feeling better now
You must be more careful next time.
使用最高级时,通常要有相当的定语说明比较的范围,形容词最高级前要加定冠词the, 例如:
She is the best pupil of that group.
Beijing is one of the most beautiful cities in the world.
This is the most interesting story I have ever read.
She is the tallest of the three.
3．物主代词的绝对形式
物主代词有两种形式:一种是my, your, her等作定语用的,它们只能和名词连在一起例如: my book, your room等；另一种是mine, yours, hers等,可以独立使用,它们称为物主代词的绝对形式,英语中的物主代词列表如下:
与名词连用的形式 my/your/his/her/its/our/your/their
绝对形式 mine/yours/his/hers/its/ours/yours/theirs
物主代词的绝对形式可以作主语、表语或宾语:
This is not my coat. Mine is in the bedroom. (主语)
This notebook is hers, not yours. (表语)
I haven't got my pen with me. May I use yours (宾语)
这种物主代词可与 of 构成短语,表示“某一个人的”,例如:
a friend of mine (我的一个朋友)
those poems of hers (她的那些诗)
定语从句
作定语用的从句称为定语从句:
The book which we read last December was very interesting indeed. (我们去年12月读的那本书内容很有意思。)
Thank you for the help that you gave me. (谢谢你给我的帮助。)
上面 which we read last December 和 that you gave me 都是定语从句。
定语从句通常由关系代词或关系副词(例如 which, that, where, when) 引起,紧跟在 所修饰的词后面。
关系代词
英语中常用的关系代词有 who, whom, whose, which, that; who代表人(作宾语时要用它的宾格 whom), which 代表东西, that 两者都可以代表,例如:
1.The lady who spoke at the meeting was Mrs. Jones.在会上讲话的那个妇女是 Jones 夫人。(who 代表 the lady, 在从句中作主语。)
2. Who was that gray haired old man (whom) we saw at yesterday's meeting 我们昨天在会上看到的头发灰白的老人是谁 (whom 代表 the old man, 在从句中作宾语。)
3. In Greece there was once a king whose name was Midas. 从前希腊有一位国王,名字叫迈达斯。(whose 等于 the king's, 在从句中作定语。)
4. The exhibition (which) we visited on Sunday was wonderful. 我们星期天参观的展览会非常精彩。(which 代表 the exhibition, 在从句中作宾语。)?
5. The building that stands on the left is a museum. 位于左边的大楼是一座博物馆。(that 代表 the building, 在从句中作主语。)
6. Who was the man that just spoke to you 刚才和你说话的那人是谁 (that 代表the man, 在从句中作主语。)
关系代词,如果在从句中作宾语,往往可以省略,例如上面第二、第四两句中的whom, which 都可以省略,又例如:
They are the most magnificent buildings I have ever seen.(那些是我所见过的最壮丽的建筑。)
Is this the novel you wanted to borrow (这就是你要借的小说吗 )
This is the worker I just told you about.(这就是我刚才向你说起的那个工人。)
关系副词
关系副词最常用的有 where 和 when; where 代表地点, when 代表时间,例如:
This is the room where Mao zedong worked. 这是毛泽东以前工作过的房间。(where= in which)
I'll never forget the day when I first came to China. 我永远也不会忘记我第一次来中国的那一天。(when =on which)
使用定语从句时应注意之点
在使用定语从句时要注意句子结构的完整性,应有的成分一个不能缺,不应有的成分一个不能多。试比较下面的例子:
Wrong: The man who came yesterday. (这不是个完整的句子,只有主语,没有谓语,因为 who came yesterday 是定语,修饰主语,不能作谓语用。)
Right: The man who came yesterday was an old friend of mine.
Wrong: This is the book which I borrowed it last week. (句中多了一个 it, 因为 which 已经是 borrowed 的宾语,不能再用it 作宾语。)
Right: This is the book which I borrowed last week.
同样地,在造其他类型的复合句时,也要注意句子结构的完整性,例如:
Wrong: One day when I was taking a walk in the college gardens. (只是一个状语,主语谓语都没有。)
Right: One day, when I was taking a walk in the college gardens, I saw a car coming up to the gate.
Wrong: Because it was warmer there. (只有状语从句,没有主语和谓语。)
Right: We decided to have our singing lesson in Room 309 because it was warmer there.
1. 被动语态
英语有两种语态:主动语态与被动语态。
主动语态: The workers welcomed the visitors warmly.(工人们热烈欢迎来参观的人。
被动语态: The visitors were warmly welcomed by the workers.
被动语态由 be + 动词的过去分词构成,be可以有不同的时态:
一般现在时: English is spoken in many countries.(许多国家讲英语。)
一般过去时: These tractors were all made in China.(这些拖拉机都是中国制造的。)
一般将来时: Another hospital will be built here next year.(明年这里还要修建一座医院。)
现在完成时: The book has been translated into many languages. (这书已译成多种语言。)
现在进行时: The question is being discussed. (这问题正在讨论。)
用于被动语态的动词词组举例
除了单个动词,动词词组也可用于被动语态。动词词组从主动语态变成被动语态,整个词组可以当作一个单个动词处理:
The factory was set up in 1952. (这个工厂是1952年建立的。)
The meeting will be put off until Friday.(会议将延至星期五举行。)
The novel has been much talked about lately. (这小说最近人们谈论得很多。)
The children are well looked after in the nursery. (孩子们在托儿所里受到很好的照顾。)
被动语态中的情态动词
被动语态的谓语里可以包含情态动词 can, may, must 和 be going to, have to 这类词组:
The word can also be used as a verb. (这个词也可以用作动词。)
This must be done at once. (这事必须立刻就办。)
The question is going to be discussed soon. (这个问题不久就要加以讨论。)
被动语态的否定式与疑问式
被动语态的否定式和疑问式举例如下:
The poem wasn't written in 1931. (这诗不是1931年写的。)
This sentence can't be analyzed this way. (这个句子不能这样分析。)
When was the palace built (这座宫殿是什么时候修建的 )
Has anything been done about it (对这事采取了什么办法没有 )
被动语态句中 by-phrase 的使用问题
在主动语态句变成被动语态句的练习中,一般可以不加by phrase。这是因为变为被动语态以后,句子的中心意思已经转移,谁是这一动作的促成者,倒不是兴趣所在。例如:
We set up the factory in 1952.
People have often talked about this novel.
这两句变成被动结构,都无须用 by phrase:
The factory was set up in 1952. (主要说明工厂建立于1952年,至于建立者是谁,说话双方都很清楚,无须说明。)
This novel has been much talked about. (主要说明关于这部小说的议论,至于议论来自何方,则不易作具体说明,而且也没有说明的必要。)
但是,如果主语在主动语态句中确是受强调的成分,变成被动语态仍应加 by-phrase。例如:
The students themselves built the factory in 1958.
The factory was built by the students themselves in 1958.
2. 地理名词中冠词的用法
1. 专门地名前通常不加冠词:
各大洲名称:
Asia North America
Africa South America
Europe Oceania
国家名称,例如:
Britain 英国
France 法国
Germany 德国
Japan 日本
2. 表明政体的国名要加the:
The People's Republic of China
The United States of America (简称 the United States)
3. 江河、海洋、山脉名称前要加the:
The Yangtze River
The Thames
The Mississippi
The Pacific Ocean 太平洋
The Atlantic Ocean 大西洋
The Indian Ocean
The Himalayas
过去完成时
表示一个动作在过去某一动作发生之前业已发生,或在过去某一时间业已完成,可以用过去成时:
When we got to the station, the train had already left. (我们到车站时车已经开了。)
By the end of last term we had learned about 800 words. (到上学期末我们已学了800个左右的词。)
过去完成时由助动词 had 加动词过去分词构成。用过去完成时的句子往往带一个表示过去时间的状语。
By lunch time most of us had finished their work. (到吃午饭的时候我们大多数人已经把工作做完了。)
The children had been put to bed when she returned. (她回来时孩子们已经睡觉了。)
It rained all through the night, but when he woke up early in the morning he found the sky had cleared up. (雨整夜不停,但他早晨醒来,天已经晴朗无云了。)
但在更多的情况下,过去时间是由上下文表示出来的,不必一定用状语表示:
I didn't go to the film. I had seen it.
She answered the question readily, because she had well prepared.
He showed us the dictionary he had bought.
The wind was still blowing, but the rain had stopped.
They wanted to visit the park again, though they had been there many times.
过去进行时
过去进行时表示过去某一时刻或某段时间内正在进行的动作。例如:
It was raining hard when we left. (我们动身的时候正下着大雨。)
We were watering the vegetables yesterday afternoon. (昨天下午我们在给蔬菜浇水。)
过去进行时由 be 的过去式加动词现在分词构成。用这一时态的句子往往带有表示过去某一时间的状语:
What were you doing at nine this morning (今天早上九点钟你在干什么 )
He was watching a football match on TV when I went in. (我进去时他正在看电视里的足球赛。)
但是,在很多情况下,时间已由上下文交代清楚了,因而可以不必用时间状语。例如:
The day was fine. The sun was shining in a blue sky.
We arrived at the village at four. The villagers were planting rice.
We were very busy last week. We were making preparations for a recitation contest.
Mary showed me the book she was reading.
这个时态常用于故事开头,描述故事发生的背景,例如:
One Friday afternoon I was taking a walk with a friend of mine. Suddenly we saw a man coming up...
间接引语
引述别人的话,如果照原话重述,称为直接引语；直接引语要加引号。 如果用引述者的话转述说话的内容,称为间接引语；间接引语不加引号。 举例如下:
直接引语:“I, too, will try a seventh time,”cried Bruce.
间接引语: Bruce said that he, too, would try a seventh time.
使用间接引语要注意:
1.时态要一致: 如果主句谓语(例如 say) 是过去时态,引语中的谓语也要用过去时态:
1)She said:“They are very fond of sports.”
She said that they were very fond of sports.
2)“I'll go over the grammar lesson once again,”he said.
He said he would go over the grammer lesson once again.
3)Mary said:“I have read up to page 25.”
Mary said she had read up to page 25.
4）“I bought the book at a second hand book shop,”she said.
She said that she had bought the book at a second hand book shop.
2.人称代词和物主代词要作相应的调整:
1)“I've just got a letter from my sister,”Jane said.
Jane said she had just got a letter from her sister.
2)“We'll come to see you again when we have time,”our friends said.
Our friends said that they would come to see us again when they had time.
3.某些时间和地点状语要作相应的调整:
1)Joe said:“I arrived yesterday (this morning, two days ago).”
Joe said he arrived the day before (that morning, two days before).
2)“I'll be in the office tonight (tomorrow),” she said.
She said she would be in the office that night (the next day).
3)“I'll be here all day,”he said.
He said he would be there all day.
1. 间接引语(续)
在上一课里我们已学习了如何把陈述句由直接引语变为间接引语。 本节讲的是特殊问句、一般问句、祈使句如何从直接引语变为间接引语。
在把特殊问句变为间接引语的时候,除了要把时态、代词、状语作相应的调整外,还要注意把问句的语序改为陈述句的语序,例如:
1) “What are you looking for, Tom ” Anne asked.
Anne asked Tom what he was looking for.
2) “Where did you leave the key ” Henry asked.
Henry asked me where I had left the key.
如果引述的是一般问句,除上述各点外,还要注意在间接引语前用连词 whether 或 if, 例如:
1) “Have you finished reading the book, George ” Betty asked.
Betty asked whether (if) George had finished reading the book.
2) Harry asked me: “Do you know where Jane lives ”
Harry asked me whether (if) I knew where Jane lived.
如果引述的是祈使句,要用 ask one to, tell one to, order one to 等词组,三者代表不同的口气(请求,让,命令),如何选用要根据原话口气决定。 例如:
1) “Don't be late again, Frank,” the teacher said.
The teacher told Frank not to be late again. (命令)
2) “Please pass me that dictionary,” she said.
She asked me to pass her that dictionary. (请求)
2. 自身代词
英语有下面这些自身代词:
Singular Plural
lst person myself ourselves
2nd person yourself yourselves
3rd person himself themselves
3rd person herself themselves
3rd person itself themselves
oneself
自身代词的用法举例说明如下:
I'll say something about myself. (我谈一点我自己的情况。)
She didn't do it for herself. She did it for us all. (她做这事不是为自己,是为我们大家。)
They are going to write a play themselves. (他们准备自己来写一个剧本。)
You said it yourself. (或 You yourself said it.) (这话是你自己说的。)
1. 构词法
英语构成新词主要有三种方式:
1.转化 (conversion): 即由一个词类转为另一个词类而词的原形不变,例如:
1)动词转化为名词:
to laugh heartily — a hearty laugh
to cry bitterly — a bitter cry
2)名词转化为动词:
fresh water — to water the flowers
a hand — to hand in the exercise books
3)形容词转化为动词:
an empty box — to empty one's glass
a slow train — the train slowed down
2.合成 (composition): 即由两个(或两个以上)的词合成一个词,例如:
birth + place — birthplace
sports + man — sportsman
dining + room —dining-room
well + cultivated — well-cultivated
sister + in + law —sister-in-law
3.派生 (derivation): 即由一个词根加词缀(前缀或后缀, prefixes or suffixes)构成新词,例如:
1)加前缀:
like (v.) — dislike (v.)
like (prep.) — unlike (prep.)
tell (v.) — retell (v.)
able (adj.) — enable (v.)
2)加后缀:
usual (adj.) — usually(adv.)
soft (adj.) — soften(v.)
use (n.) — useful(adj.) usefulness (n.)
hero (n.) — heroic(adj.)
3)加前缀和后缀:
order (n.) — disorderly (adj.)
usual (adj.) — unusually (adv.)
forget (v.) — unforgettable (adj.)
2. 惊叹句
惊叹句可以用来表示强烈的惊讶、喜悦、愤怒等感情。常见的惊叹句是以 what 和
how 引起的, what 修饰名词, how 修饰形容词、副词或动词,例如:
1.What a busy, exciting day I have had! (比较: I have had a busy, exciting day.)
What wonderful music this is! (比较: This is wonderful music.)
2.How beautiful it looks! (比较: It looks beautiful.)
How well they sang! (比较: They sang well.)
也有些惊叹句不是这种结构,而是普通的陈述句、祈使句或疑问句的结构,只是带有较强的感情, 例如:
Always be loyal to the motherland!
Isn't she a lovely child!
惊叹句末尾加惊叹号,惊叹句通常用降调。
带引导词 it 的常用结构
有些句子,在句首通常属于主语的位置上,先有一个本身没有词汇意义的 it 作为引导,而真正的主语却在谓语后面。在这种结构中,it 所代表的成分可以是:
(1) 不定式或不定式短语:
“It is a pleasure to hear what you say about friendship,”said the Miller's wife.
It was difficult for Bill Landon to find his first job.
When will it be necessary to return these books
(2) 动名词或动名词短语:
“It's no use going to see little Hans in winter,” said the Miller.
It's no use crying over spilt milk.
(3) 名词从句:
It was strange that the rich miller never gave him anything in return.
Is it true that there is going to be a fashion show (时装表演) early next month
It was believed that the unknown author was a young doctor.
现在分词的句法作用
现在分词在句子中的主要作用是:
1. 用作定语:
Groups of young workers passing (= who passed) them on the way would shout out friendly greetings.
People working (=who worked) there were mostly women.
2. 用作状语:
Bruce lay on the ground, listening to the sound of the rain on the roof.
“Good morning,”said Hans, smiling from ear to ear.
We marched through the streets, singing revolutionary songs and shouting slogans.
Not knowing the language, he didn't know how to ask the way.
3. 用作表语:
The report is quite inspiring.
The news seemed very encouraging.
4. 用在像 I found him reading 这样的结构中,例如:
I saw him coming to the house.
I heard him knocking at the door.
I found him working at top speed.
过去分词的句法作用
过去分词在句子中的主要作用是:
1. 用作定语:
Once upon a time there lived a king named Midas ( = who was named Midas).
I like the poem recited (=that was recited) yesterday evening.
A written answer; an unfinished job.
2. 用作表语:
The road was covered with snow.
One of the cups is broken.
We were surprised to hear the news.
3. 用作状语:
The people, led by the Party, have won victory after victory.
The visitors watched the show fascinated.
4. 用在像 I found the cup broken 这样的句子中,例如:
I saw the visiting team beaten at basketball.
We've just had the walls whitewashed.
Don't leave the work unfinished.
注: 现在分词和过去分词有时可以构成复合形容词,例如:
a good-looking boy
a weather-beaten face
hard-working people
well-cultivated fields
动名词的句法作用
动名词由动词原形加词尾-ing 构成,与现在分词同形。它和分词一样具有某些动词的特点,又在句子中起名词能起的作用,因此叫做“动名词”。它的句法作用如下:
1. 用作动词的宾语:
He began studying English at the age of 13.
Have you finished correcting the papers
She couldn’t help crying when she heard of her son’s death in aircrash(空难).
Would you mind turning the radio on
2. 用作介词的宾语:
We are thinking of getting more experts to help in the experiment.
Thank you for giving us so much help.
The children spent their afternoon at the Zoo instead of visiting the park.
3. 用作主语和表语:
Smoking is not allowed here.
Seeing is believing. (眼见为实；见到才信。)
His job was sorting out information.
动名词前面可以加上物主代词、人称代词宾格、名词或其所有格,表示行为的主体,整个词组在意思上相当于一个主谓结构。例如:
What is the use of my doing that
John's going there himself saved us a good deal of trouble.
I don't like people (them) calling at such an hour.
注: 1. 动名词也有被动式,例如:
The boy was afraid of being scolded. (那孩子怕受到责骂。)
I heard the noise of desks being opened and closed. (我听见书桌被掀开和关上的声音。)
2. 动名词还可以用来构成合成词,例如:
writing-desk (写字台)
sleeping-car (火车的卧车)
dining-room (饭厅)
swimming-pool (游泳池)
介词的用法（1）
介词是表示词与词的关系的重要手段,必须加以熟练掌握。下面(以及后面一课“语法”部分)所列的短语和句子,可以例示英语中几个较常用的介词的主要意义和用法。
AT
at the top (bottom, front, back) of / at the desk (table, bench, fireside) / at the window (door, entrance) // at what place / at the bus stop / at the market / at a bookshop (hotel, grocer's) / at the station (post office) / at Mr. Brown's (my uncle's ) / at home (school, college, church) / at Cambridge // at what time / at that time (the same time) / at that moment / at nine o'clock (ten past five) / at dawn (daybreak, noon, midnight) / at present / at first (last)/ at Christmas / at twenty (the age of twenty) / at this stage // at breakfast (an English lesson) / at the meeting (party, concert) // at most (least, best, worst) / at the earliest (latest) //
He called at my house (the Dean's office) at ten this morning. / We arrived at a small town (the village, the station, etc.; but in England, in London). / The meeting took place at the club. / He is staying at the Grand Hotel. / He knocked at the door, but nobody answered. / When we called, John was at his dinner. / What are you at now / She is working at an essay. / The boy is clever (good, bad) at mathematics. / I am no good at drawing. / We all cheered at the news. / The hunter shot at the bear but missed it. / The angry man shouted (yelled) at the boys. / We laughed heartily at his jokes. / We were surprised at her (her behaviour, what she said, the progress she had made). / This sort of tea is sold at 4 shillings a pound ( a lower price now). /
ON
on the table (desk, shelves) / on the wall (ground, floor, ceiling, roof) / on the first (second) floor/ on the river (lake, bank, shore) / on paper (a slip of paper) / on page 27 // on the right (left) / on the north (south) side / on this side (both sides, all sides) // on one's way home (one's way to school) // on that day (Monday, the 24th of July) / on New Year's Day (Christmas Eve) / on Monday morning (afternoon, evening) / on cold winter evenings / on the morning (afternoon, evening) of September 17//
There is a picture on the wall (but a hole in the wall). / He is sitting on a bench (on a chair or in a chair, but in an armchair). / The Smiths have a three-room flat on the second floor. / He put the kettle on the fire. / The house is on fire. / The ball hit him on the head (back, arm). / He got so exhausted that he could hardly stand on his feet. / He was lying on his back. / Wuhan is on the Yangtze. / You are wanted on the telephone. / We came here on foot (horseback). / The Indian elephant lives on leaves and shoots. / He spent a lot of money on books. / She played a trick on him. / My friend came to Beijing on business. / Who is on duty today / He is away on holiday (a journey). / We are listening to a talk on current affairs. / He has written several books on English grammar. / On learning the news he hurried back to town. /
IN (INTO)
in the box (bookcase, kettle) / in the room (hall, house) / in the forest (fields, hills, mountains) / in the sky (air) / in the middle (centre, corner) // in the world / in Europe (but on the continent) / in Greece / in London / in town / in the country / in the neighbourhood / in the north (south) // in a book (picture, newspaper) / in Lesson 5 (Chapter II, but on page 27)// in the morning (afternoon, evening; but on the morning of November 11, on Saturday afternoon) / in June / in summer / in [the year] 1949 / in one's childhood / in the time of Shakespeare/ in modern times // in a short time / in a few days' time / in three weeks (=at the end of three weeks' time) / in no time (a minute) // in what way (that way, the right way) / in secret (haste) / in a whisper (a loud voice) // in what state / in surprise (alarm) / in anger (a temper) / in good health / in danger (difficulties) //
Is there any ink in the pot If there isn't , pour some into it./ He must be in the reading room. I saw him go into it just now. / He is in trouble now. I always thought he would get into some trouble. / I didn't know you were here in Beijing. / The birds sat in the trees singing merrily. / I read about it in the newspapers. / I do most of my reading in the evening. / We shall be through in an hour or so. / Many of the first-year students are still in their teens. / Try to tell the story in English (in your own words). / He looked up in surprise. / The wheelbarrow was not in good condition. / The mourners were dressed in black. / Columbus spent eighteen years in planning for his voyage across the Atlantic. / What subjects are you interested in /
介词的用法（2）
OF
the roof of the house / teachers of a school / a friend of mine (John's) / the works of? Shakespeare // many (some) of us / best of all // a lot of things / plenty of time / a piece of? paper / a pair of shoes / a crowd of people // students of English / the study of English / the heroic struggle of our people // a man of wisdom / the art of painting / the city of Rome /
There were three of us, John, Mary, and I. / The hall was full of people. / Much of what he said was true. / John is the best pupil of that group (in his class). / What kind of man was he / He was a man of unusual ability (great courage). / Everywhere we saw signs of prosperity. / She was then a mere child of eight. / What's the good of doing that / These books may be of some use to you. / Have you told them of your plan / We have never heard of such a thing before. / What did he ask of you / What do you think of yesterday's concert / He is fond of music (playing tennis). / We felt very proud of the good job we had done. / He made a careful study of the problem. / You should take good care of your health. / What is this watch made of / That house is built of stone (brick, wood, etc.). / I wonder what has become of him. / It is very kind (generous, foolish, etc.) of you to do so. / Well, what of that Anybody else could do it just as well. / He carried on the work in spite of his poor health. /
ABOUT
There are many fruit trees about the farm house. / Books and papers were left lying about the room. / The children are running about the garden. / He looked about him. / Do you happen to have some money about you / That young man has a pleasing air about him. / They were talking about their plans for the holidays. / He told me all bout it. / What is she complaining about / This is the worker I just told you about. / What's he so angry about / You should be more careful about your spelling. / The boy is mad about books. / He went to town about an urgent business. / Don't worry, I'll see about the matter. / Go and fetch some water. And be quick about it. / I'll stay at school for the holiday. What about you / What about a short walk (going to the cinema tonight) /
介词的用法（3）
介词to和for的用法：
从构词上来说，这两个介词都是简单介词，从词义上来说