2023年中考英语语法专题（14份打包）

倒装句(the Inversion)
倒装句分为全部倒装和部分倒装，看看一下内容，你就可以学习这些内容了。
1. 全部倒装
　 全部倒装是只将句子中的谓语动词全部置于主语(一般是名词)之前。此结构通常只用于一般现在时
和一般过去时。常见的结构有：
　1） here, there, now, then, thus等副词置于句首, 谓语动词常用be, come, go, lie, run等表示来去或状态
的动词。
例：Then came the chairman. 那时总裁来了。
　　 Here is your letter. 你的信。 There goes the bell! 铃响了！ There comes the bus! 公共汽车来了！
　2）表示运动方向的副词或地点状语置于句首，谓语表示运动的动词。
例：Out rushed a missile from under the bomber. 轰炸机肚底下窜出一枚导弹。
　　 Ahead sat an old woman. 前面坐着一个老妪。
注意：上述全部倒装的句型结构的主语必须是名词，如果主语是人称代词则不能完全倒装。
例：Here he comes. 他来了。　　　　 Away they went. 他们走开了。
2．部分倒装
部分倒装是指将谓语的一部分如助动词或情态倒装至主语之前。如果句子的谓语没有助动词或情态动词，则需添加助动词do, does或did，并将其置于主语之前（行为动词或除be以外的连系动词必须位于主语后）。
1).句首为否定或半否定的词语以表示强调时，其句中的主谓须用倒装结构。这些否定词包括no, not, never, seldom, little, hardly, at no time, in no way, not only, not until… 等。
例： Never have I seen such a performance. 从未见过如此糟糕的表演。
　 Nowhere will you find the answer to this question. 无论如何你不会找到这个问题的答案的。
　 Not until the child fell asleep did the mother leave the room. 母亲一直到孩子入睡后离开房间。
　 当not until引出主从复合句，主句倒装，从句不倒装。注意： 如否定词不在句首不倒装。
例： I have never seen such a performance.
　　 The mother didn't leave the room until the child fell asleep.
3．以否定词开头作部分倒装
Not only…but also, Hardly/Scarcely…when, No sooner… than等，要倒装。
例： Not only did he refuse the gift, he also severely criticized the sender. 他没收礼物，还狠批了送礼的人。
　 Hardly had she gone out when a student came to visit her. 她刚出门，就有个学生来访。
　 No sooner had she gone out than a student came to visit her. 她刚出门，就有个学生来访。
以具有否定意义的副词放在句首时，一般采用倒装句（谓语前置）。这类表否定意义的词有never, seldom,
scarcely, little, few, not, hardly及not only…but (also), no sooner…than, hardly… when scarcely… when等。
注意：只有当Not only… but also连接两个分句时，才在第一个分句用倒装结构。如果置于句首的Not
only… but also仅连接两个并列词语，不可用倒装结构。
例：Not only you but also I am fond of music。
4. so, neither, nor作部分倒装
　 用这些词表示"也"、"也不" 的句子要部分倒装。
例：Tom can speak French. So can Jack. 汤姆会讲法语，杰克也会。
　　 If you won\'t go, neither will I. 你不去，我也不去。
注意：当so引出的句子用以对上文内容加以证实或肯定时，不可用倒装结构。意为"的确如此"。
例：Tom asked me to go to play football and so I did. 汤姆邀我去踢球，我去了。
　 ---It's raining hard. ---So it is. 雨下得真大。是呀。
5. only在句首倒装的情况。
例：Only in this way can you learn English well. 只有这样，你才能学好英语。
　 Only after being asked three times did he come to the meeting. 叫了三次，他才来参加会议。
　如果句子为主从复合句，则主句倒装，从句不倒装。
例：Only when he is seriously ill does he ever stay in bed. 病得狠重时，他才卧床休息。
6. as, though 引导的倒装句
　 as / though引导的让步从句必须将表语或状语提前（形容词, 副词, 分词, 实义动词提前）。但需注意：
　1）句首名词不能带任何冠词。
　2）句首是实义动词, 其他助动词放在主语后。如果实义动词有宾语和状语，随实义动词一起放在主语
之前。
例：Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily. 他工作努力，但总不能让人满意。
注意：让步状语从句中，有though，although时，后面的主句不能有but，但是 though 和yet, still可连用。
7. 其他部分倒装
1） so… that 句型中的so 位于句首时，需倒装。
例：So frightened was he that he did not dare to move an inch. 他害怕得很，动也不敢动。
2） 在某些表示祝愿的句型中。
例：May you all be happy. 愿你们都快乐。
3） 在虚拟语气条件句中从句谓语动词有were, had, should等词，可将if 省略，把 were, had, should 移
到主语之前，采取部分倒装。
例：Were I you, I would try it again. 我是你的话，就再试一次。
4) the + 比较级(主语+谓语), the + 比较级(主语+谓语)
例：The harder he studies, the happier he feels. 他学习越努力，就越感觉快乐。形容词(Adjective)
一．概念理解：用来修饰或描写名词或代词，表示人或事物的性质、特征、状态的词，称为形容词，英语中常用adj,表示。
二．形容词的句法功能：形容词可在句中作定语、表语或宾/主语补足语等。
例：1).Beijing is a beautiful city.(定语)
2).I’m very glad to meet you.(表语)
3).We felt very excited at the exciting news.(表语；定语)
4).The news made us happy. Who left the door open
We found it very interesting to read English novels. (宾语补足语)
5).They were made angry by what he said. (主语补足语)
** “the+形容词”表一类人或事物，可作主语或宾语
例：1).The rich must help the poor. 2).The young have different ideas on it from the old.
注意：1.少数形容词，如：little, live [laiv](活的), elder, eldest,only,wooden,woolen等以及复合形容词
(English-speaking,kind-hearted,man-made,take-away)等只能作定语，不能做表语。
例：1) It’s a nice little house.不说The house is little.但可说The house is small.
2) Although old, he is still very much alive.(不用live)
3) My brother is three years older than me.(不用elder)
4) His eldest brother is a famous doctor.(不用oldest)
5) New Zealand is an English-speaking country.
2.少数形容词：afraid,awake,asleep,alive,alike,alone,ill,well,worth,glad,unable等只作表语，不做定语。
例：1).Don’t be afraid. 2).The twins are alike.
3).He is awake to the difficulty. 4).She is ill (sick).
5).This book is (well) worth reading.(不可用very,而用well修饰)
6).He is alone at home, but he never feels lonely.
注意：可说She ‘s a sick woman.而不能说She’s an ill woman.
三．1.形容词在句子中的位置：
作定语时，一般放在所修饰的名词之前。如有两个以上的形容词修饰名词时，先后位置由他们和被
修饰的名词的关系密切程度而定。一般，关系最密切者最靠近名词：
例：1).She is a clever girl. 2).It’s a high and modern building.
2.当形容词所修饰的词是由some, any, every, no等构成的不定代词时，要放在其后：
例：1) I have something new to tell you.2)We asked someone friendly for help.
表示长、宽、高、深及年龄的形容词，应放在相应的名词后修饰：
例：1).The street is 35 metres wide. 2).a hole 10 metres deep
*** 注意：也可用 a 35-metre-wide street a 21-year-old man的表达形式
注意：below, above, nearby, else, alone等形容词作定语时，一般放在被修饰词的后面：
例：1)They saw the girl crying on the chair below.2)He works in the factory nearby .
3.用在宾语后面做宾语补足语：
例：1).We must keep our classroom clean. 2).I think it difficult to study physics.
4. enough和possible等词，既可放在名词前，又可放在名词后：
例：We have enough time/time enough to do the work.
5.作表语放在系动词后：
例：He is alone at home,but he doesn’t feel lonely.
注意：friendly,lovely,lonely,well(身体好)等常为形容词而非副词。
四．形容词的排列顺序：
当有一个以上的名词修饰语时，往往有较固定的次序。限定词一般放在首位，其它修饰语则常根据其与名词的亲疏关系依次排列。
例：1).a weak small old man (冠词+描绘形容词+特征形容词)
2).a tall clever young Chinese soldier(冠+描绘+特征+专有+名词)
注意：修饰名次的词语次序大致为：
限定词-------数词------描绘形容词------特征形容词------颜色--- ---类属 --- ---用途 +名词
(冠/代等) (短前长后) (大小形状新旧年龄等) (专有或材质)(含动名词)
the last four beautiful big new blue Spanish wooden houses
五．形容词比较等级的构成与用法：
1.(1)规则变化：
构成法 原级 比较级 最高级
单音节词末尾加-er [ ], -est [ist] hard harder hardest
以不发音e结尾单音节词加-r,-st large larger largest
重读闭音节词，仅一辅音字母结尾的，双写再加-er,-est hot thin hotter thinner hottest thinnest
“辅音字母+y”结尾双音节词，变y为i，再加-er, -est happyearly happier earlier happiest earliest
多音节和大部分双音节词，在原级前加more,most或less,least excitingdifficult more excitingmore difficult most excitingmost difficult
注：1) 以y结尾的独立词根词，变y：dry, easy, early, hungry, angry等。
以y结尾的派生词，前面加more或most：slowly, quickly, 等。
2）有些单音节词比较等级常用more和most，如glad, fond, shy(或shyer, shier; shyest, shiest), like，tired;
有些单音节词则用-er和-est或more和most皆可, 如free, clear.
有些双音节词亦如此，如secure, cruel, pretty, lively等(real只可用more和most)。
※ 当代英语似有多用more和most的趋势。
(2)不规则变化：
原级 比较级 最高级
good / well(健康的) better best
bad / ill worse worst
many(可数)/much(不可数) more most
little less least
far farther(距离) / further(程度) farthet / furthest
old older(新旧长幼) / elder(血缘长幼) oldest / eldest
2.(1)原级的用法：
A.一般陈述或由very, quite, too, rather, so, pretty等表程度的副词修饰。
注意：quite / rather / such + a / an + adj. +n. 的结构。
B.两者比较，程度相等，即“A和B一样”(A=B)，用：
1)as+原级形容词+as I think science is as important as maths.
2)as+原级形容词+a/an+名(单)+as John is as clever a boy as Jack.
3)as +many/few/much/little+名(复数/不可数)+as Is there as much water in this glass as in that one
C.表示两者不同，即“A不如B”(A1)not as/ so+原级+as =less+原级+than / no more +原级+than
My English is not as/so good as yours. He is not as/so clever as I thought.
D.表示倍数“A是B多少倍”，用：half/twice/three---times as +原级+as
You’re not half as clever as you think you are.
This room is four times as large as that one.=---four times larger than---.
(2)比较级的用法：
A.两者相比，表“A比B更---”，用“比较级+than”后出现于or句型。
The earth is bigger than the moon. Who is more careful, Ann or Kate
B.为表程度大小，比较级前可用many, much, a lot, even, far, still, a little/bit等来修饰。
My brother is much older than I. That job is far more difficult than this one.
**注意：使用比较结构时，比较对象的一致性：
Her hair is longer than her sister’s. (不能用her sister)
The life in the city is better than that in the countryside. (不能用in the countryside)
(3)最高级的用法：
表多者之间的比较，表“最------”，前面应加the，后常带of/among或in表范围的短语(of/ among整体与部分为同类词；in整体与部分为不同类词)。
1. This is the biggest factory in the city. 2. This story is the most interesting of the three.
3. He is the tallest among us all. 4. Who is the oldest, LiLei, LinTao or Kate
5. Which is the best player, A, B or C
** 特殊表达方式：
1.比较级+and+比较级：表“越来越------”(多音节多用more and more+原级)
When spring comes, the days are getting longer and longer.
Tianjin is becoming more and more beautiful.
2.the+比较级---，the+比较级---：表“越------就越------”
The more, the better.
The more you read, the more knowledge you’ll get.
The harder she studies, the happier she feels.
3.比较级+than+any other+单/复数名词=比较级+than+the other+复数名词：
**用比较级表最高级的意义 （同一范围）
He is taller than any other boy(s) /the other boys in his class. =He is the tallest boy in his class.
**注意：Shanghai is larger than any city in Japan.(不属同一范围内不用other)
4.序数词+最高级(表顺序排列)：
Changjiang River is the third longest river in the world. (没有用first情况)
5.one of+最高级+复数名词：表“最------之一”
This is one of the most interesting films that I’ve ever seen.
6.the+比较级：表“(两者中)比较------的那个”
The older of the two men is my brother. Which is the larger country, Canada or America
7.prefer A to B (=like A better than B):
I prefer apples to pears. She prefers skating to skiing.
** a / an +最高级：表“非常/很------”，而非最高级意
This is a most important meeting.
副词(Adverb)
一．概念理解：用来修饰动词、形容词、其它副词或全句，说明时间、地点、程度或方式等概念或表示行为特征或性状的词，称为副词，英语中常用adv.或ad.表示
二．.副词的分类：
1.时间副词always,just,soon,then,ago,later,early,just now,so far,last night等。
2.地点副词 there,above,around,away,inside,home,downstairs等。
3.方式副词：hard,well,badly,slowly,happily,quickly,softly等。
4.程度副词：quite,much,still,almost,deeply,nearly,widely,so等。
5.否定副词：no,not,hardly,never,nor,neither,seldom等。
6.频度副词：always,usually,oftensometimes,seldom,ever,generally等。
7.疑问副词：how,why,where,when,howmuch/ long/ soon等(用于疑问句)。
8.关系副词：how,why,where,when,等(用于定语从句)。
9.连接副词：yet,so,however,then,otherwise(否则)等。
三．副词的句法功能：
1.副词在句中作状语，用来修饰谓语动词、形容词、其它副词或全句。
例：1).She sings well.(动词) 2).My answer is quite easy.(形容词)
3).He is going on too slowly(副词)4).Luckily,I have passed the exam.(全句)
5).It snowed heavily last night.(动词) 6.She is terribly clever.(形容词)
2.副词在句中作定语，放在所修饰词的后面。
例：1).The teachers here are very kind to me.
2).I met an old friend on my way home.
3).The clouds above began to get thicker.
3.副词在句中作表语，系动词后，常表位置：in, on, back, down, up, off, away, out, over, abroad, upstairs等
例：1).I must be off(离开). 2).The film has been on for half an hour.
3).She’s still abroad(在国外). 4).When will you be back
4.副词在句中作宾语补足语。
例：1).When we came into his room,we found him out.2).Let me in.I know he is in.
四．副词的构成：
1．一般在形容词词尾加-ly，构成副词：usual–usually, polite-politely, safe–safely, brave–bravely, slow–slowly
2．以辅音加-le收尾的形容词，去掉e再加-y：
例：simple–simply,terrible – terribly,comfortable–comfortably, possible-possibly able – ably, true – truly
3．以y结尾的形容词，变y为再i加-ly：
例：easy –easily,happy – happily lucky – luckily, angry – angrily **但：dry – dryly, full – fully
4．副词与形容词同形：hard, late,high,straight,deep,early,far,fast,last,long等。
5．特殊变换：例：good – well, many – much,such - so
注意：1.本身即副词：very,almost,often,rather,always,sometimes,seldom等。
2.lonely, friendly,lovely,silly,timely,orderly等本身是形容词，而非副词。
3.hardly(几乎不)/nearly(将近)不是hard/near的副词转换形式
4.词形变换不同，表达意义也不同：
far- farther-farthest(常表具体的距离远近，形象意义)
far –further-furthest(常表程度的加深或延展，抽象意义)
deep既是形容词，也是副词，常用于表示具体的“深”。例：dive deep
deeply是副词，常用于表程度或情感的“深度”。
例：She is deeply moved at this moving story.
wide既是形容词，也是副词，常用于表示具体的“宽”。
widely是副词，常用于表示程度的“广泛”。
例：English is the most widely used in the world.
五．副词在句子中的位置：
1.多数位于其所修饰的动词之后。
例：1).We’re living happily. 2).He runs fast. 3).The ground must be watered well when it’s dry.
2.时间、地点、方式副词一般放在句末。
例：1).I heard him singing over there. 2).He drove the car carefully.
3.频度副词一般放在be动词、情态动词及第一个助动词之后，实意动词前。
例：1).He is never late for school. 2).You must always remember this.
3).He will always be with us. 4).Do you usually go to school on foot
*** 注意：有时为了加强语气，频度副词也可放在句首。例：Usually, they play football after school.
4.程度副词修饰动词时，同于频度副词；修饰形容词或副词时，一般前置。
例：1).That’s quite early. 2).I nearly missed the bus.
*** 但：enough等修饰形容词或副词时，须后置
例：1).He ran fast enough to catch the bus. 2).He is not well enough to go to school.
5.否定副词与频度副词类同。
例：1).I’m never late for school. 2).We can hardly finish it on time.
6.疑问副词放在特殊疑问句句首。
例：1).Where were you born
2).Why do you think it is important to pay attention to the ecosystem of our world
7.关系副词引导定语从句时，位于主从句之间。
例：1).Tell me the reason why you did it. 2).Do you remember the day when I bought the book for you
8.不定副词somewhere等的修饰(定)语要后置。
例：It’s cold here,I want to go somewhere warm. Would you like to go somewhere else
***注意：同时存在时间状语和地点状语时，时间状语一般放在后面。
例：1).He watched TV in his room on Sunday.
2).They arrived in Beijing at 8 o’clock last Monday.
六．副词的比较等级的构成与用法：
(一).A.规则变化（规则与形容词相同）
例：fast - faster - fastest early - earlier - earliest carefully-more carefully-most carefully
B.不规则变化
原级 比较级 最高级
well better best
badly worse worst
much more most
little less least
far farther(较远) further(进一步) farthest(最远) furthest(最大程度)
late later(较迟) latter(后者) latest(最新)表时间 last (最后)表顺序
(二).副词比较等级用法与形容词类似，但副词比较等级一般作状语，最高级的定冠词可省略。
A.原级：
例：1).Lin Tao jumps quite far.(不表比较或由very,so,too,quite,rather,pretty修饰)
2).She loves her school as much as her own home. (as+原级+as结构)
Please water the flowers as well/often as possible.
3).She doesn’t get up as/so early as you (do). (not as/so+原级+as结构)
4).He can read twice as fast as I can. (倍数+as+原级+as)
B.比较级：
例：1)She writes better than I (me). (比较级+than ---)
2)Who listens more carefully,Li Lei or Li Tao (带or形式的特殊问句)
3)I hope you will do it much more carefully next time. (much,far, even, a bit, a little等修饰比较级)
4)Our country is developing much more quickly than ever before.
5)Which do you like better, this one or that one
6)Which do you prefer,the green one or the white one (prefer表比较级意)
C.最高级：
例：1)He listened to the teacher(the) most carefully in class.
2)They all came early but she came (the )earliest of all.
3)Of all the boys he speaks English (the) best.
4)Which do you like best, pears, apples or oranges
***特殊表达方式：
1. The birds fly higher and higher.(比较级+and+比较级，表“越来越------”)
They walk more and more slowly.(more+and+more+多音节原级词)
2. The more you practice, the better you will write. (the+比较级---，the+比较级--)
The harder you work, the more you will learn.
The more he spoke, the more excited he was. (越-----，越------:倒装句)
3. He runs faster than any other boy(s)/the other boys in his class.
He runs (the) fastest in his class.(比较级表最高级意义)
(比较级+than+any other+单数/复数名词或the other+复数名词/the others)
4. Kate jumped the second longest in her class.(序数词+最高级，表排列顺序)
5. He studies as hard as he can. (as….as one can，表“尽某人所能”)
=He studies as hard as possible. ( as…as possible (尽可能------)动词不定式 (The Infinitive)
一．概念理解：
A. 动词不定式是英语中非限定性动词的一种，它不像一般动词那样受主语人称和数的限制，不需要和主语的人称和数保持一致，没有人称和数的变化，所以称为不定式。
B. 不定式的基本形式：to + V(动词原形)。to只是不定式的标记或符号，本身无意义，有时可省略。不定式仍有动词特点，可有自己的宾语或状语，有时态和语态的变化。
C. 不定式除了不能作谓语外，可作主语、宾语、表语、宾语补足语（或主语补足语）、定语或状语等，可以说它具有名词、形容词、副词的特征。
D. 与汉语不同，英语中两个实意动词一般不能连用。第二个动词常须用不定式的形式，做第一个动词的表语、宾语、宾语补足语或状语。(口语中有的动词可连用，如：help do sth. ，go do sth.)
E. 在由and或or等连接的两个不定式时，第二个不定式前的to一般要省略。
二．基本用法：
A. 主语：
不定式作主语时，常用(形式主语)“it”来代替，放在句首，而将(真正的主语)不定式放在后面，以避免有“头重脚轻”的感觉；翻译时不必把“it”译出来(即it有语法意义而无词汇意义)。
例：1. To learn English well is not easy. -> It is not easy to learn English well.
(主 语) (形式主语) (真正主语)
2. It’s better to give than to receive. 3. It’s very nice to say so.
※如果要说明不定式所表示的动作是谁做的，可以在不定式的前面加一个由for或of引起的短语(构成
不定式的复合结构)，for / of 后接代词时要接宾格形式。
1). 使用表客观情况的形容词，如：easy, difficult, hard, important, (im)possible, safe, dangerous, interesting, necessary等词后要接for sb. to do sth. 的形式(位置可变)。
例：It’s difficult for a foreigner to learn Chinese. 或For a foreigner, it’s difficult to learn Chinese.
2). 使用表主观感情、态度或评价的形容词，如：good, kind, nice, clever, wise, foolish, right, wrong, careful, brave, (im)polite, strong等词后要接of sb. to do sth. 的形式 (不能移动位置) 。
例：It’s very nice of you to help me with my English.= You are very nice to help me with my English.
★注意：1. 句中for/of sb. to do短语是不定式的逻辑上的主语(代词要用宾格)。
2. 可移动位置而又不影响表达意义的用for sb. to do结构(例1)；
不可移动位置且人与形容词呈主系表关系的用of sb. to do结构(例2)。
B. 表语：(谓语是连系动词)
例：1. His work is to teach us English. 2. He seems to be all right soon. 3. My wish is to become a doctor.
C. 宾语：
不定式常作动词want, hope, wish, expect, like, love, hate, need, try, learn, ask, offer, plan, pretend
(假装), deserve(注定), decide, fail, agree, happen, prefer, prepare, afford, help, choose, begin,
start, continue, forget, remember, mean, promise, refuse, wait, dare, would like, make up
one’s mind等的宾语。
例1. You need to see the doctor at once. 2. Don’t forget to bring me your photo.
※如果不定式作find, think, feel等动词的宾语而且其后面有宾语补足语时，则要用“it”作形式宾语，不定式后置。
例：He found it very difficult to get to sleep.
(形式宾语) (真 正 宾 语)
D.宾语补足语：
在表达时，对句子宾语进行补充说明，表示宾语“是什么”或“怎么样”的部分，称为宾语补足语。
(1).作ask, tell, want, would like, love, like, hate, order, allow, think, believe, teach, invite, get, warn, cause, expect, wish, advise, persuade (但是hope和suggest不行)等的宾语补足语时，不定式带to。
例：1. Mr. Li told me to write to him as soon as possible. 2. He asks me not to be late again.
(2).作使役动词let, make, have或感官动词see, watch, notice, observe, look at, find, hear, listen to, feel, suggest等的宾语补足语时，不定式常省略to。
例：1. Let’s go and ask our teacher. 2. His words made us laugh. 3. Did you see him leave the house
※注意：上述动词在变为被动语态时，原来作宾语补足语的不定式转变为主语补足语，通常不定式符号to要还原(let除外)。
例：We heard them sing in the next room. →They were heard to sing in the next room.
(3). help后作宾语补足语的不定式可带to也可省略to。
例：Could you help me (to) mend this bike
★感官动词接不定式和现在分词作宾语补足语的区别：
接不定式表示已经发生的动作，即表示从开始到结束的动作的全过程(或表示对事实的陈述)；而接现
在分词表示动作处于进行过程中，即表示正在发生或持续性的动作 (或强调描写)。
例：I saw Kate come into the classroom. (我看见Kate进了教室；动作已结束)
I saw Kate coming into the classroom. (我看见Kate正进教室；动作在进行)
E.定语：
不定式作定语时，须放在所被修饰的名词或代词的后面。
(1)不定式常与被修饰的词存在着动宾关系，如果不定式属于不及物动词，其后面要加上相应的介/副词，以保持意义和短语的完整(形成相应的动宾或介宾关系)。
※ 检验方法：将所修饰的名词或代词后移，看不定式是否与之形成完整的动宾关系； 如不能形成动宾关系，动词就是不及物动词，须加相应的介词或副词与宾语形成相应的动宾或介宾关系。
例：1. Have you got anything cold to drink 2. They have no house to live in.
3. I want five pieces of paper to write on. 4. I have nothing to worry about.
5. I need a pen to write with. 6. I want a seat to sit on.
7.I have 200 words to write down.
●注意：如果不定式修饰的是time, place或way时，不定式后习惯上要省略介词。
例：1. My grandma had no place to live (in) before liberation(解放).
2. He has no time to think. (time作think的时间状语)
3. We have different ways to solve this problem. (way作solve的方式状语)
(2). 如果句子主语是不定式的逻辑主语，不定式用主动式；如果句子主语是不定式的逻辑宾语(或逻辑主语不明的情况下)，不定式则常用被动式。
例：1. I have quite a lot of homework to do. 2. There is a lot of homework to be done.
※但是如果there be结构中的主语是something, nothing等不定代词，用主动或被动形式的动词不定式
来修饰，意思有区别：
例：There is nothing to see (没什么可看的 ) There is nothing to be seen. (什么也看不见)
There are many kinds of clothes in the store. But I think there is nothing to see because I don’t like any one here.
It’s very dark in the room. There is nothing to be seen.
(3). 如果被修饰词是序数词或被序数词修饰的词时，常用不定式作定语。
例：He is always the first student to arrive at school, and the last (one) to leave the school.
F. 状语：
不定式有时起副词的作用，修饰动词或形容词，在句中作状语，表示目的、原因或结果等。
例1. She went to see her grandma last Sunday. (目的状语)
2. I’m sorry to trouble you. (原因状语，常修饰形容词)
I’m surprised to see him out.
3. a. He woke up to find that he was in hospital. (结果状语)
b. He is too young to go to school.
=He is too young a boy to go to school. / He is not old enough to go to school.
c. He hurried to school, only to find it was Sunday. <结果(意外的，only后)>
●注意：He is too excited to see his old friends. (原因状语)
(too后如为表情绪的形容词，此时too=very/so，后面的不定式不表示否定意义)
4. The chair is comfortable to sit in. (方式状语，常修饰表语形容词；不定式与句子主语常呈动宾关系)
The question is easy to answer.
We found the problem difficult to solve. (方式状语，常修饰补语形容词；不定式常与宾语呈动宾关系)
三． 不定式与疑问词的连用：
不定式与疑问词的连用，构成不定式短语，相当于一个名词，可在句中作主语、表语、宾语或作宾语补足语等相应的成分，起的作用相当于一个相应的从句。
例：1. I don’t know what to do. (宾语) = I don’t know what I should do.
Can you tell me how to do it (宾语) = Can you tell me how I can do it
2. How to use it is unknown.(主语) =It’s unknown how to use it.
3. The question is where to hold the sports meeting. (表语)
=The question is where we will hold the sports meeting.
四．不定式的否定形式(not + to do)：
例：1. He told me not to be late again next time. (带to的不定式在to前加not)
2. He made the baby not cry any more. (不带to的在动词原形前加not)
五．不定式的时态和语态：
1. 不定式的一般式的动作与句中谓语动词所表示的动作同时或之后发生：
例：He hoped to visit China again in the near future.
2. 不定式的完成式表示的动作发生在句中谓语动词所表示的动作之前：
例：I am sorry to have kept you waiting so long.
3. 不定式的进行式强调与句中谓语动词的动作同时发生：
例：It happened to be raining when I got to Beijing.
4. 不定式的被动语态表示不定式的动作与它的逻辑主语之间是被动关系：
例：I am glad to be asked to speak here.
六．不定式的特殊句型：
1. would / should like / love to do---(愿意做某事) 例：Would you like to have tea or coffee
2. Why not + do--- (为什么不做某事呢？<表提建议>) 例：Why not go to the Great Wall then
3. had better (not) + do---(最好<不>做------) 例：You’d better go and have a god rest.
4. have to + do---(不得不做某事) 例：Jim has to go back home now.
5. Will/Would you please (not) + do--- (请你<不要>做某事好吗 )
例：Will you please come to my home this afternoon
6. would rather + do than + do---.(宁愿---而不) 例：LiuHulan would rather die than give in(屈服).
7.prefer + to do A+ rather than + do B (宁愿做A而也不做B)
例：He prefer to go to work by bike rather than take a ride in a bus.
8. do nothing/anything but/except + do---(除做------外而做------) ※do作谓语时，but后省略to。
例：He did nothing but sit there silently. This man didn’t make any kites but to buy some paper.
9. It’s time (for sb.) to do sth. = It’s time for sth.(是该做------的时侯了)
例：It’s time (for us) to have supper. = It’s time for supper.
10. There is no time left (for sb.) to do sth.(对于某人而言没有时间做某事了)
例：There is no time left (for me) to think more about it.
11. It + take + sb. + some time / money+ to do sth.(某人花费时间/金钱做某事)
例：It takes me half an hour to read English every day.
12. 形容词/副词 + enough + to do sth.(足够------做某事)
例：The child is not old enough to dress itself. He got up early enough to catch the early bus.
13. too + 形容词/副词 + to do sth.(太------而不能做某事) 例：The man was too excited to speak.
too +形容词/副词 + not to do sth. (在------之下难免会------)例：He is too angry not to say that.
注意：too --- to do 往往可与not --- enough to do 互换
The child is too young to go to school. = The child is not old enough to go to school.
14. be ready to do sth. (乐意做某事) 例：He is always ready to help others.
15. It + be +形容词+ for sb. to do sth.(对某人来说做------很------)
例：It is very important for us to have a good knowledge of international trade.
16. be afraid to do sth. (害怕而不敢做某事) 例：The girl is afraid to go out alone at night.
七．不定式的省略形式：
根据已了解的句意或为了避免上下文重复，不定式在一定的情况下可采用省略形式，但to不能省略。
例：1. –Will you join us in the game -Yes, I’ll be glad to.
2. –Would you like to have supper with us -I’d love to / I prefer not to.
3. –Used he to work in the factory -Yes, he used to.
八．特殊情况：
1. go on doing sth. 继续做(同一件)事情 V-ing动名词→宾语(=go on with sth.)
例：Jack got up quickly and went on running.
go on to do sth. (某件事做完后)接着做另一件事 不定式→目的状语
例：After listening to the music, he went on to write the words.
go on with sth. 中间有暂停情况(接名/代词)，常与go on doing sth.互换
例：Let’s go on with our study.
2. stop doing sth. 停止做某事(= not do sth.) V-ing 动名词→宾语
例：They stopped talking when the teacher came in.
stop to do sth. 停下(某事)去做另一件事(=begin to do sth.) 不定式→目的状语
例：They were tired, so they stopped to have a rest.
3. try doing sth. 尝试做某事 V-ing 动名词→宾语
例：He tried singing this song, but he failed.
try to do sth. 努力/设法做某事 不定式→宾语/目的状语
例：We are trying to finish our work on time.
4. forget doing sth. 忘了(已做过的)某事 V-ing 动名词→宾语(做了)
例：I forgot sending him a postcard.
forget to do sth. 忘记(应该做的)某事 不定式→宾语(未做)
例：I forgot to send him a postcard.
5. remember doing sth. 记得(已做过的)某事 V-ing 动名词→宾语(做了)
例：I remember sending him a postcard.
remember to do sth. 记着(应该做的)某事 不定式→宾语(未做)
例：I remember to send him a postcard.
6. begin / start / continue doing sth.与begin / start /continue to do sth.基本一致
例：Soon my friends at junior high school started listening / listen and they wanted to help.
后跟不定式，多表示情况发生变化，而动名词则表示有意识的行为。
例：1. Suddenly it started to rain. 2. We started working on the project in 2004.
7. like / love / hate / dislike doing sth. 常表示习惯或经常性的动作
例：I like swimming in summer.
like / love / hate / dislike to do sth. 常表示一次具体的动作
例：He hates to stay in the zoo today.
8. want / need / require+ doing 主语为事物，与doing是被动关系 (=want/need/ require to be done)
例：This bike needs repairing. = This bike needs to be repaired.
want / need + to do sth. 主语是人或其他动物，与to do是主动关系
例：They need to wear warm clothes.
9. prefer to do sth. rather than do sth. = prefer doing sth. to doing sth.(喜欢做前者而不喜欢做后者)
I prefer to learn English rather than play the piano on Sunday.
= I prefer learning English to playing the piano on Sunday.
10. used to do与be/get used to doing
used to do “过去常常/曾经做某事” I used to get up late, but now I get up early.
(to是不定式符号，后面接动词原形，used to只能用于过去时)
be/get used to “习惯于--” You will be used to the life in this city. Are you used to getting up early
(to介词，后面接动词时用动名词，即v-ing，be used to可用于各种时态)
注意：pay attention to, look forward to, make a contribution to, prefer--- to ---, be used to---, make a difference to--- 等结构中，to是介词，后面接动词时须接v-ing形式。
动名词 (The Gerund)
概念理解：动名词是由动词原形加-ing构成，属非谓语动词形式。
动名词起名词的作用，可作主语，表语，宾语和定语。同时，它还保留着动词的某些特征，后面可以带宾语，也可以由状语来修饰，构成动名词短语。
动名词的句法功能
作主语：
例：1. Watching TV too much is bad for your eyes. 2. Surfing is one of the most popular games in the world .
注意：在there be句式或it作形式主语(it is +(名词)no use/good或（形容词）useless ,nice等)时，将作
真正主语的动名词放在句末。
例：1. There is no joking about such a serious matter. 2. It is so nice sitting here with you .
3. It is no good/use talking to him (It is useless talking to him )
B. 作表语：
例：1. My hobby is collecting stamps. 2. What I hate most is leaving today’s work for tomorrow.
3. The main thing is getting there in time.
C. 作动词或介词的宾语：
1）作动词或短语advise, mind, stop, finish, practise, begin, start, enjoy, need, forget, remember, regret, keep,
imagine, suggest, miss (错过), can’t help, keep on, give up, put off，pay attention to, look forward to, make a contribution to, prefer--- to ---, be used to---, make a difference to ---等的宾语
例：1. Have you finished reading this novel 2. Would you mind (my) opening the windows
3. I forget writing to him . 4. We couldn’t help laughing when we heard this .
2) 作介词或含介词的短语的宾语
例：1. He is good at swimming . 2. Thank you for teaching us so well.
3. I’m sorry for not being able to come earlier. 4. I’m used to reading by myself.
3)做某些形容词的宾语
例：1. He is busy cooking .(主动意) 2．The book is (well) worth reading .(被动意)
D.作定语：
例：1. He may be in the reading room. 2. What do you thing of his teaching method
3. Children can go swimming in the swimming pool in summer.
注意：动名词作定语还可用同名词一起构成复合名词。例如：
swimming -pool, sleeping-car, sleeping-pill, dining-room
三．动名词如果有自己的逻辑主语，逻辑主语可以以物主代词或名词所有格的形式出现在动名词前面，构成动名词的复合结构。
例：1. Do you mind my using your ruler 2. I don’t like the idea of Mary’s leaving so soon.
四．动名词也有时态和语态的变化
A. 1.I enjoy working with him.(一般式所表的动作与谓语动词所表的动作同时发生)
2. He insisted on starting early.(-------------发生在谓语动词之后)
3. I remember having returned the book to you . (完成式所表动作发生在谓语动词之前)
4. Excuse me for troubling you so much . (某些谓语动词后面，一般式代替完成式)
B. 1. The girl was afraid of being scolded 2. He remembered having been fooled (欺骗)by that young man.
V-ing 分词（The present participle）
分词有两种：现在分词（present participle）和过去分词（part participle）
一．ing分词在英语中被称之为现在分词。它是由动词原形加词尾-ing构成的。是动词的五种基本形式之一。初学阶段现在分词主要用在进行时态中作句子的谓语。
例：1. They are sleeping under the tree. 2. I was watching TV at eight o’clock yesterday evening .
另外：分词在句中可以不作谓语，因此又被称为非谓语动词。分词起形容词和副词的作用，同时它还保留着动词的某些特征，后面可以带宾语，也可以用状语来修饰，构成分词短语。
现在分词有一般式和完成式两种时态，有主动语态和被动语态
二．ing分词的句法功能
作表语
例：1. The news is very exciting. 2. His speech(发言) is boring. 3. The job was tiring.
注意：作表语的现在分词也可理解为形容词，可出现其不同等级，也可被very等副词修饰。
例：This film is much more interesting than that one
作定语
单独作定语时，通常放在它所修饰的名词前，作用相当于一个形容词；分词短语作定语时，则需置于所修饰
的名词后，作用相当于一个定语从句。
例：1. He is an attacking (攻击型的)player.
2. I know the man standing there.(=I know the man who is standing there )
注意：现在分词短语作定语时，它所表示的动作是与谓语动词所表示的动作同时发生的，或现阶段正在进行的动作。如果两个动作发生的时间不一致，就不能用现在分词短语而用动词不定式短语或定语从句修饰。
例：1. Do you know anything about the accident which happened (不用happening) yesterday
2. He is going to attend the meeting to be held（不用being held） in Beijing next month.
C. 作补足语
1）用作宾语补足语，与其前面的宾语构成复合宾语（谓语动词常为感观动词或使役动词）
例：1. I saw the boy hitting the dog. 2. I felt the house shaking.
3. I’m sorry to have kept you waiting. 4. The boss had the worker working all day
2) 用作主语补足语（多用于被动语态）
例：1. He was heard singing all the time 2. They were watched playing football.
D.作状语： 表示时间、原因、结果或伴随情况等，相当于相对应的状语从句
例：1. Walking in the street, I saw her. (= When I walked in the street, I saw her.)
2. He took photos while listening to the report. (分词前加when、while表两部分动作同时发生)
3. Being ill, I stayed at home (= Because I was ill, I stayed at home.)
4. Not knowing what to do, he went to the teacher for help (= As he didn’t know what to do, he------)
5. He fired(开枪), killing a bear. (表结果)
6. The boy fell from the tree, breaking his leg.( (表结果)
7. He lay in bed, listening to the sound of the rain.(表方式或伴随)
8. They stood there waiting for the bus. (表方式或伴随)
9. His parents died , leaving him an orphan(孤儿).(表方式或伴随)
三、1) 分词作状语时，其逻辑主语通常是谓语动词的主语。否则应改作相应的状语从句，或改变谓语动词的主语。
例：Hearing the sad news , tears came into her eyes. (x)
When she heard the sad news, tears came into her eyes.
Or Hearing the sad news, she could not keep back her tears.
2) 作为习惯短语的分词短语作状语(通常修饰整个句子)时，其逻辑主语与谓语动词的主语不必一致。
例：1. Generally speaking, it’s easier to drive a car than to fly a plane. (一般说来------)
2. Talking of foreign languages, do you think English is hard to learn (说起------)
3）分词作状语时，有时可有自己独立的逻辑主语，这种带逻辑主语的分词结构称为独立结构（absolute construction）
例：1. Weather permitting, we’ll go for a walk. (= If the weather permits, we’ll ------)
2. The rain having stopped, we went on with our work.. (= When the rain had stopped, we ------)
四 、 分词有时态和语态变化
A、 1. The children walked along the river, singing and laughing. (一般式表同时发生)
2. Arriving at/Entering the village, he found a lot of people sitting there.（状前主后）
3. Having handed in his paper, he left the classroom. (完成式表发生在谓语动词前)
B、 1. What do you think of the problem being discussed
2. Having been criticized (批评)many times, the naughty boy had to behave himself (规范自己)
V-ed 分词 (The past participle)
一、-ed分词即过去分词，是动词五种基本形式之一。初学阶段过去分词主要用于完成时态和被动语态中作句子的谓语。过去分词分为规则变化与不规则变化。
例：1. We have finished the work. 2. When I got to the station, the train had left . 3. He was not badly hurt.
另外：分词在句子中可以不作谓语，因此又被称为非谓语动词，分词起形容词和副词的作用，同时它还保留着动词的某些特征，可以用状语来修饰，也可构成分词短语。
过去分词只有一般式和被动语态，没有完成式，也没有主动语态
二、-ed 分词的句法功能
A、作表语
例：1. My glasses are broken. 2. He is very interested in science.
3. The audience was bored(厌烦的). 4. We soon became tired, but the children were excited.
5. He is gone (离开的).
作表语的过去分词也可理解为形容词，某些可出现不同等级，也可被very等副词修饰（例2）
B.作定语
分词单独作定语时，通常放在它所修饰的名词前，作用相当于形容词；分词短语作定语时，则需后置，作用相当于定语从句。
例：1. Her job is to take care of the wounded soilder.
2. Is there any difference between spoken English and written English
3. This is the building built last year. (= This is the building which was built last year)
4. We enjoyed the play put on by them.（= We enjoyed the play which was put on by them.）
注意：过去分词或短语作定语，多表示已完成的动作或被修饰的名词与-ed分词存在着动宾关系。
C.作补足语
1）用作宾语补足语，与其前面宾语构成复合宾语 （谓语动词常为感观动词或使役动词）
例：1. I found the door locked. 2. I should like this matter solved at once .
3. I had my hair cut yesterday. 4. I had my watch stolen last week.
5. I had my finger cut when I was cooking yesterday.
***have后复合宾语(have sth. done)
（1）过去分词所表动作由别人而非主语完成的 (例3) （2）过去分词所表动作是主语本身的遭遇 (例4/5)
2）用作主语补足语（多用于被动语态）
例：1. The fire is reported controlled. 2. The door is found broken.
D.作状语：表示时间、原因、条件、方式、或伴随情况等，相当于相应的状语从句
例：1. Seen from the hill, the town looks beautiful.
(= When it is seen from the hill, the ------) (时间)
2. Deeply touched by the play, she could hardly keep back her tears.
(= Since she was deeply touched by the play，she ------) (原因)
3. Read every morning, English will be improved quickly.
(= If English is read every ---, English will --) (条件)
4．She enters, supported(被搀扶) by her mother. (方式或伴随情况)
注意：1. 分词或分词短语作状语时，其逻辑主语通常是谓语动词的主语（即前后主语一致），否则应改作相应的状语从句或改变主句的主语。
例: Seen from the hill, we find the town very beautiful. (错)
Seen from the hill, the town is found very beautiful. (对)
2．过去分词作状语时，有时也可以有自己独立的逻辑主语，构成独立结构
例: The work done, they went to the bathhouse to have a shower.
( = When the work was done, they went to the bathhouse to ------)
PAGE
48句子种类(Kinds of Sentences)
根据句子的目的或用途，句子可分为四种：
A.陈述句(declarative sentence)：说明一个事实或陈述说话人的看法的句子。包括肯定句和否定句两种。
**注意：陈述句的否定形式有以下几种情况：
(1).凡谓语部分含有be动词、助动词或情态动词时，其否定形式只需在他们的后面加not即可。
(2).如果谓语动词是have to+V(have to属情态动词)，其否定形式则在have to前加助动词do,does或did的否定式(don’t,doesn’t,didn’t)。
(3).如果谓语动词是used to+V (used to--过去常常），其否定形式可在used后加not，即used not to…或在use前加助动词didn’t,即didn’t use to。
例：They used to smoke a lot. They used not to smoke a lot. They didn’t use to smoke a lot.
(4).如果谓语动词是行为动词have,则否定句有两种形式：
A.当have作“有”讲时，其否定形式可在have后面直接加not，或在have前加don’t,doesn’t或didn’t。
例：She has a nice skirt. She hasn’t a nice skirt. She doesn’t have a nice skirt .
B.当have不是“有”，而是“吃，开，玩，买”等意思时，其否定形式则应在它前面加don’t,does’t,didn’t。
例：We have a meeting every two week - We don’t have a meeting every two weeks.
(5).如果谓语动词是其他行为动词，其否定形式应在行为动词原形前用don’t,doesn’t,didn’t.
例：1.He works very hard.---He doesn’t work ver y hard.
2. They go to work by bus.---They don’t go to work by bus.
3.I did my homework yesterday.---I didn’t do my homework yesterday.
B.疑问句(interrogative sentence)：用来提出问题的句子。包括四种疑问句。
(一)一般疑问句(General Questions)：用来询问一件事或一个情况是否属实，常用yes / no来回答的问句，一般读升调。又可称为Yes-No Questions。
A.be动词(am,is,are;was,were)开头：
例：1.Are you from English –Yes,I am. / No,I’m not.
2.Were you at home yesterday – Yes,I was. / No, I wasn’t.
B.助动词do,does,didn’t;have,has,had;am,is,are;was,were;will,would等开头：
例：1.Did he have lunch at home yesterday – Yes he did. / No,he didn’t.
2.Have you ever been to Shanghai – Yes,I have. / No,I haven’t.
3.Is this bike made in Tianjin – Yes,it is. / No,it isn’t.
4.Were you watching TV last night – Yes,I was. / No,I wasn’t.
5.Will you be fre next month – Yes,I will. / No,I won’t.
C.情态动词can,could;may,might;must;will,would;shall,should等开头：
例：1.Must I finish the work now – Yes,you must. / No,you needn’t.
2.May I smoke here – Yes,you may. / No,you can’t/mustn’t.
**否定的一般疑问句用来表示惊讶、责难、赞叹等。这种疑问句的英语和汉语的答语不一样。英语回
答前后要一致，和反意疑问句一样。一般而言，如果句中事实是肯定的，就用yes；事实是否定的，
就用no，而且注意中文翻译。
例：Haven’t you been to Beijing – Yes, I have. / No,I haven’t.
难道你没去过北京吗？ 不，我去过。/是的，我没去过。
**注意：(1)肯定回答用完整形式，不用缩略式。
(2)有时一般问句不用yes或no来回答，而用其他一些词语，多见于口语中；有时答语不用问句开头的词语，而用其他词语。
例：May I use your ruler – OK,here you are.
(3)陈述句转换为一般问句参考前三项；如果陈述句中含有some,something,already等时，改
为一般疑问句，则须变为any,anything,yet等。
例：He has something to say. – Does he have anything to say
Thet have already done it. – Have they done it yet
(二)特殊疑问句(Special Questions)：以特殊疑问(代/副)词开头的问句称为特殊疑问句。这种疑问句要
针对提问进行具体回答，不用Yes/No回答，一般读降调。
特殊疑问句的主要结构：
(1).疑问词+陈述语序(疑问词或短语作主语)
例：1.Who will go there 2.Which boy is his brother
(2)疑问词+一般疑问句语序(对宾语、表语、定语、状语等的提问)
例：1.Who are they looking for 2.How often does he go to Shanghai
(三)选择疑问句(Alternative Questions)：说话人对问题提出两个或多个选择，让对方选择
回答。其结构是：一般问句/特殊问句+选择部分(or连接)，回答时须选择，不用Yes/No来回答。
(1)一般选择疑问句(一般疑问句+AorB) Would you like a pear or an orange
(2)特殊选择疑问句(特殊疑问句+A ,BorC) Which do you like best,dogs,cats or ducks
(四)反意疑问句(Disjunctive/Tag Questions)：又称附加疑问句，他提出情况或看法，问对方是否同意。反意疑问句由“陈述句+简略一般问句”构成。它的结构通常有两种：
(1)否定陈述+肯定疑问 (2)肯定陈述+否定疑问
注意：(1)后面简短问句由“be动词(情态动词、助动词)(not)+主语”构成，be动词或助动词应和前句保持
一致（即反义疑问句的谓语动词在时态和人称或数方面要与前面陈述句的谓语动词保持一
致），简短问句中的主语一般要用相应的代词。
例：-Mary is a nurse,isn’t she –Yes,she is. / No,she isn’t.
-They didn’t come last week,did they – Yes,they did. / No,they didn’t.
(2)当陈述句是否定意义句子时，答语中Yes译成“不”，而No译成“是的”。
(3)当陈述句中出现no,no one,nobody,nothing,none,neither,few,little,never,hardly, seldom(很少)等表否定意的词时，后面疑问句部分应用肯定形式。
例：1.She can hardly speak English, can she 2.Few people know it, do they
3.She’s never read this book, has she 4.Neither of the answers is right,is it
5.None of them wanted to travel to France, did they
注意：反义疑问句的陈述部分含有由un-, im-, in-, dis-等否定意义的前缀构成的词语时，陈述部分要视
为肯定含义，问句部分用否定形式。
例：1. Your father is unhappy, isn’t he
2. The man is dishonest, isn’t he
3. It is impossible to learn English without remembering more words, isn’t it
(4)如果陈述句主语是everybody,everyone,none等时，相应的代词是they,也可以用he(人)；如果主
语是every(any,no)thing(事物)等时，相应的代词是it。
例：1.Everybody is here,aren’t they/isn’t he 2.Nothing is difficult in the word,is it
(5)Let’s开头的祈使句(us包括听话人在内，表“建议”)，疑问部分用shall we；
而Let us(us不包括听话人在内，表征求“许可”)开头时，疑问部分用will you。
例：1.Let’s be friends,shall we 2.Let us try it again,will you
** 除let开头的祈使句，其他肯定的祈使句的反意问句用will you(更客气)或won’t you；否定的祈使
句只能用will you。
例：1.Please say it again, will you /won’t you
2.-Don’t be late next time,will you –OK.Mr.Li.I won’t.
(6)在以I (don’t) think(believe,suppose,expect, guess)等开头的复合句的反意疑问句中，简短问句
中的主语和谓语要和从句的主语和谓语保持一致。（其他句型视主句的主语和谓语而定）。
例：1.I believe (that) he is right,isn’t he 2.I don’t think he has lunch at home,does he
3.She thinks (that) they have gone to Beijing,doesn’t she
(7)there be开头的反意疑问句，简短问句用be(not) there形式。
例：There is nothing in the box,is there 2.
(8)had better+V句式反意疑问句，简短问句用“hadn’t+主语”形式
例：1.They had better leave now, hadn’t they
(9)used to+V句式的反意疑问句，简短问句用“didn’t+主语”/“usedn’t+主语”形式。
例：LiLei used to smoke a lot, didn’t he / usedn’t he
(10) A. must+V (必须)句式的反意疑问句，简短问句用“needn’t+主语”形式。
例：He must leave here at once, needn’t he
B. must+V (一定，表对现在的推测)的反意疑问句，简短问句用V的变化形式。
例：1.He must know you, doesn’t he 2.He must be alone at home now, isn’t he
C. must+have +V-ed (一定，表对过去的推测)的反意疑问句，简短问句用如下形式。
例：1.He must have done his work,hasn’t he
2.He must have done his work yesterday,didn’t he (有确切的过去时间用过去时)
注意：must表推测时，反义问句形式如何给出：忽略掉must, 谓语形式与must后的动词形式呼应。
(11)省略的感叹句的反意疑问句，注意主语和单复数形式。
例：1.What beautiful flowers, aren’t they 2.What fine weather, isn’t it
3.How silly of me, isn’t it
(12)反义疑问句的陈述部分为I am时，问句部分习惯上用aren’t I表示。
例：I’m a very honest man, aren’t I
(13) too --- to--- 结构的翻译疑问句，后面用否定形式。
例：He is too young to go to school, isn’t he
C.祈使句(imperative sentence)：表示请求、命令、劝告、叮嘱、号召等。说话的对象是第二人称you，
you常省略，因此常以动词原形开头，句末用感叹号或句号。
(1)肯定结构的祈使句：动词原形开头，可在句首用please或句尾用please,will (would)you表示语气委婉客气(与主句用逗号隔开)。
例：1.Come in,please! 2.Please be careful! 3.Let’s go for a walk.
4.Wait a minute,will/would you 5.Will/Would you please try it again
**注意：有时为了加强语气或强调，在句首加do重读，译作“一定，务必”。
例：1.Do tell me about it. 2.Do come next time,please!
3.Do let me have another try. 4.Do be careful not to catch cold.
(2)否定结构的祈使句：以don’t或never等加动词原形开头。
例：1.Don’t do that again. 2.Don’t be afraid! 3.Never give up!
**注意：以let开头的祈使句的否定形式有两种：
(1)let宾语是第一人称(me,us)时，否定式是在宾语后面加not。
例：Let’s not waste any time.
(2)let宾语是第三人称时，否定式常为let前加don’t。
例：Don’t let them make any noise.
D.感叹句(exclamatory sentence):表示喜、怒、哀、乐以及惊异等强烈感情的句子。
感叹句通常由how或what引导，句末用感叹号。基本结构如下：
(1) What(形容词)开头，修饰、说明的中心词是名词，作定语。
A. What + a/an + 形容词 + 单数可数名词(+主语+谓语) !
***主语一般为代词或人名；谓语一般为连系动词；a 辅音前，an元音前。
例：1.What an interesting book (it is)! 2.What a beautiful song it sounds!
3.What a useful invention the computer is! 4.What an honest boy LiLei is!
B. What + 形容词 + 复数名词/不可数名词 (+主语+谓语)！
例：1.What beautiful flowers (these/they are)! 2.What heavy clouds they are!
3.Wha fine weather it is today! 4.What bad news it is!
5.What fools we are! (不用形容词) 6.What noise they are making!
7.What a strong wind it is! 8.What a heavy rain/snow it is!
(不定冠词用于部分不可数名词前，表示“一场”“一阵”等意思)
how(副词)开头，修饰形容词、副词或动词，作状语。
A. How + 形容词 + 主语 + 谓语(常为连系动词)！
例：1.How fine the weather is! 2.How beautiful the flowers look!
B. How + 副词 + 主语 + 谓语(常为行为动词)!
例：1.How fast LiLei runs! 2.How heavily it rained last night! 3.How well she sings!
C..How + 主语 + 谓语(常为行为动词) (+其它)！
例：1.How I wish I could fly! 2.How time flies!
D.How +形容词+ a/an + 单数可数名词 +主语 + 谓语(常为连系动词)！
例：How clever a boy he is! = What a clever boy he is!
**注意：1. 基础题判断思路：找出感叹句的主语和谓语，主语前面如为名词，用what；如为形容词或副词，用how. (上述C.D两项特例)
2. 感叹句可根据上下文采用省略形式：
例：1.How (well) she sings! 2.What a fine day (it is)! 3.How cold (it is) today!
疑问句否定形式也可用作感叹句：
例：Isn’t it beautiful ! = How beautiful it is !代词(Pronoun)
一．概念理解：
代词是代替名词、名词短语或数词的词，具有名词和形容词的功能。英语中用pron.表示。
二．代词的种类：人称、物主、反身、指示、不定、相互、疑问和关系代词八类
(一)人称代词的用法： *人称代词有人称、数、格和性的变化。
数 单数 单数 复数 复数
格 主格 宾格 主格 宾格
第一人称 I me we us
第二人称 you you you you
第三人称 he him they them
she her
it it
he,him为阳性,she,her为阴性，it为中性。
A.主格用法：
1．一般来说，人称代词的主格在句中做主语。 例：I like English.
2．有时在叙述故事时常将动物人格化，可爱、美丽的动物用she来表示，凶猛的动物用he或it表示。
　例：Tom has a lovely cat.She is his favourite.
表示船只、祖国、大地、月亮等时常用代词she。
例：China is our motherland.She is getting richer and stronger.
当几个不同的人称代词做主语时，常用and或or连接，其排列顺序是：
单数人称代词常按第二、三、一人称的顺序：you,he/she and I; you and I; you and he/she
例：You,she and I will go there by air.
注意：在承担责任或检讨时，通常把第一人称代词I 放在句首。
例：-Who ate my apples -I and Lucy.
复数人称代词常按第一、二、三人称的顺序：we,you and they; we and you/they; you and they
例：We,you and they like swimming.
注意：we,you, they有时在句中并非特定的人，译成汉语是不必译为原意。
例：They speak English in America. We had a heavy snow last year.
注意：人称代词主格可用作表语，主要用在强调句型“It+be+强调部分+that从句”和口语中。
例：1.It is he that told me about it. 2.- Who broke the glass –It’s her/she.
B．宾格用法：
1．人称代词宾格一般用作及物动词或短语的宾语：
例：Mrs Zhao teaches us English. Please write them down.(代词作宾语需在“动词+副词”构成的短语中间)
注意：介词后面只能接人称代词宾格，不能用主格。
例：1.There is a chair between you and me. 2.It is impossible for him to finish the work without our help.
2．人称代词宾格还可用作表语： 例：-Who is knocking at the door –It’s me.
3．人称代词it的特殊用法：
a.打电话时用于指人： Hello,it is Jackson.
b.代替小孩或婴儿： She was holding a baby in her arms and it was crying.
c.指不清楚性别等信息的人：-Who is singing over there -It must be Mary.
d.指时间、天气和距离等：The radio says,it’s going to rain today.
e.代替提到过的人或事物：Your bag is very nice.Where did you buy it
注意：但one用于指代同类（避免重复）人或事物：Your bag is very nice,I want to buy one,too.
f.用在强调句型中：It was last night that I got an e-mail from my friend.
g.用作形式主语或宾语：It is very difficult for me to learn English well.
I find it very difficult for me to learn English well.
（二）物主代词的用法：
**表示所有关系的代词，也叫代词所有格。
数 单数 单数 单数 复数 复数 复数
人称 I II III I II III
形容词性物主代词 my your his/her/its our your their
名 词 性物主代词 mine yours His/hers/its ours yours theirs
A.形容词性物主代词的用法：
具有形容词的特性，在句中作定语，后面接名词或动名词。不能单独使用，其前后也不能接定冠词the.
例：This is his book,and that is my book.
B.名词性物主代词的用法：
具有名词的特性，在句中可做主语、宾语、表语，还可构成“---of---”句型（在此句型中，名词性物主代词在句中作定语）
例：1.（主语）This isn’t my book.Mine is in that bag. 2.（表语）The bike under the tree isn’t hers.It’s his.
3.（宾语）I can’t find my pen.Can I borrow yours
4.（定语）He is an old friend of mine.(=He is one of my old friends.)
（三）反身代词的用法 用来表示“某人自己”的代词称为反身代词或自身代词。
数 人称 I II III
单数 myself Yourself himself herself itself
复数 ourselves Yourselves themselves
反身代词常用作宾语、主语或宾语的同位语，有时还可作为表语。
A.作宾语（反射作用）：
例：1. Did you teach yourself English 2. I enjoyed myself during the summer holiday.
3. We must be strict with ourselves.
B.作同位语（表示“亲自或本人”起加强语气的作用，在句中的位置较灵活）
例：1. I myself went to post the letter. = I went to post the letter myself.(亲自)
2. I’ll write to your father himself.(本人)
C.作表语（常与系动词连用，表示或描述一种感觉、情绪或状态）
例：I don’t know what’s wrong with me.I’m not myself today.(感到不舒服)
注意：1.不接反身代词的动词：get up,stand up,wake up等。
2.注意习惯用语：help oneself (to sth.) （请随便吃---） Make yourself at home.（别客气）等。 例：1).Help yourselves to some grapes,Children! 2).I’ll do my best so that I can make myself understood.
3.by oneself (独自地),of oneself (自动地)
例：1).I can’t leave my little sister at home by herself because she is only 5.
2).Suddenly the door opened of itself and out came an old man.
D.常用表达法（注意人称、数和性的一致性）：
teach oneself---(自学---)=learn---by oneself；enjoy oneself(过得愉快)=have a good time；help oneself to sth；say to oneself(自言自语)；hurt oneself；dress oneself等。
（四）指示代词的用法：
用来表示“这/那个，这/哪些”等概念的代词称为指示代词。
A. 基本用法：this/that代替单数或不可数的人或物，these/those代替复数的人或物。他们在句做主语、
宾语、定语或表语。
例：1.This is a pen,that’s a penci l.(主语) 2.Those apples in the bag are good.(定语)
3.I don’t want this,I want that.(宾语) 4.What I want to tell you is this. (表语)
B.特殊用法：1.this和these指空间或时间上接近的人或物，而that和those指较远的人或物。
2.that和those/the ones可用来指前面说过或已做过的事物，以免重复。
例：1)That’s why we are learning English in China
2)The TV sets made in China are as good as those made in America
3)The weather in Shanghai is much warmer than that in Beijing.
4)The population of China is larger than that of Japan
C.same与such用法：
same表示“同样”，指同样人或事，前须加the，作主语/宾语/表语和定语。
例：1）The twins look the same .(表) 2）Thank you all the same.(状) 3）That is the same pen as I lost. (定)
such 表示“这样”，常做主语或定语，作定语时，所修饰的名词前如有a/an,置其后。
例：1）Such is your plan for the coming holiday.(主) 2）I have never seen such a nice film.(定)
3）I have such good classmates that I am proud of them（定）
注意1.such…that…(如此…以致…),such as…(诸如…),such…as…(像…那样)
例：1)She has many kinds of fruit such as apples ,grapes and so on .2)He is such a person as I spoke of.
2.such与no ,all ,these ,those以及基数词连用时，such放在他们的后面。
例: 1)We have three such cars. 2) All such exercises must be done at once.
比较：There is such a good person here. （这儿有这样一位好人）
There is no such a good person here. （这儿绝没有如此好的人）
（五）不定代词的用法：
不指明代替任何特定名词的代词称为不定代词。通常用作替代词。常为：all, each, both, either, neither, one, none, little, few, many, other, another, some, any, no以及由some, any, no, every分别与one, body,thing组合成的复合词。作用相当于名词或形容词，作主语、宾语、表语或定语。
A. all的用法：
“所有”，表三个或更多人或物“都”，可做主、宾、表、定、同位语等。当其指复数名词时，谓语用复数；指不可数名词时，谓语用单数。
例：1.All children are interested in learning English. (形容词作定语)
2.All of the children are interested in learning English.（代词作主语）
3.He wants to tell me all about it. （代词作宾语）
4.Is that all you can help me （代词作表语）
注：1).all作为同位语，通常位于行为动词前，be动词、助动词或情态动词后。
例:1.We all want to help him.2.The presents are all for the girl.3.They are all working.
2).all 与not连用是表示部分否定。
例：Not all the students want to go there.=All the students don’t want to go there.
而表示全部否定，需用No one…或None of…结构。
例：None of the students want/wants to go there.(谓语动词用单、复数形式都可)
3)当all作主语时，如后跟人称代词，需用of+宾格；如后跟带the的名词，可接of结构，也可不用。
例： 1).All of us are from Tianjin. 2).All of the boys/All the boys have gone to visit the museum.
4)当all作人称代词宾格的同位语时，all紧跟在宾语后面。
例：I think one Christmas card for us all is good.
注：both意为“两者都”，表两个人或物“都”，用法与all几乎一致。但完全否定句用Neither of…类型.
例:1).They are both girls.(全肯) 2)Both of them aren’t girls.(部分否) 3)Neither of them is a girl.(全否)
B. none, nobody与no one的用法：
none即可指代人，也可指代事物，表示“没有一个人/东西”，作主/宾语等。后面可跟of短语。作主语时，如其指代的是复数名词，谓语用单、复数都行（强调整体时谓语常用复数；强调个体时则常用单数）；如其指代的是不可数名词，谓语用单数形式。常用来回答how many或how much以及特定范围的问题。
例：1.-How many of the women are nurses –None(of them is/are). （主语）
2.-How much water is left in the bottle –None(of it is). （主语）
3.-Which of the boys plays football well –None(of them does). （主语）
4.Are there any students in the classroom -None. （主语）
5.I understood none of the questions. （宾语）
6.None of us like/likes it. （主语）
nobody和no one都指代人，做主语时，谓语用单数，后面不跟of短语。常回答who和不确定的问题，在句中做主语或宾语。
例：1.Luckily,nobody/no one was hurt in this accident. （主语）
2.-Who went to the zoo last week . –Nobody/No one (did). （主语）
3.I can see nobody in the room. （宾语）
C. each 与every的用法：
each和every都意为“每一个”，但两者用法不同。each 指两者或多者，强调个体情况，既是代词，又是形容词，常作主/宾/同位语等。every指三者或三者以上，强调全体情况，只是形容词，只作定语（与all近义）
例：1.Each of them has a bag with them.(主) 2.He gave one to each of us two.(宾)
3.Each boy has a ball in their hands.(定) 4.They each have four wheels. (同)
注意：1）each和every作定语时，后面名词只用单数，谓语动词用单数。
2）each of后面接带the的复数名词或复数宾格代词，谓语动词用单数。
3）“every+基数词+复数名词”或“every+序数词+单数名词”表“每(隔)---”
例：1.The Olympic Games are held every four years(every fourth year).
2.every other day (每隔一天)
D.both, either与neither的用法：
三者都代替两个人或事物，在句中作主/宾/定语。both表“(两者)都”(肯定)，
either表示“(两者中)任一”，neither表示“(两者中)任何一个都不”(否定)。
例：1）1.Both of the books are interesting. 2.Either of us is(Both of us are) right.
3.Neither of his parents is a teacher. （主语）
注意：当它们作主语时，both的谓语用复数；either/neither的谓语用单数。
2）1.I want both of the pens. 2.I don’t want(want neither of) either of them.
3.I know neither of the two boys. （宾语）
3）1.There are many trees on both sides/either(each)side of the river.
2.Neither mooncake is delicious. (either/neither后接单数词)（定语）
注意：1 both---and---连接并列主语时，谓语用复数。
neither---nor---/either---or 连接并列主语时，谓语与第二主语一致（就近规则）。
例：1).Both he and I are right. 2).Neither he nor I am right.
3).Either he or I am right.
2.either还可作副词：“也（不）”，用于否定句；而too“也”，用于肯定句。
E.one的用法：
1.表示一个人或事物。所有格是one’s,反身代词是oneself.
例：1.One should do one’s duty. 2.One of my friends will be here tomorrow.
2.可用来代替上文出现的名词，以免用词重复，单数用one复数用ones。前面常带有定语。
例：1.This apple is a bad one 2.He doesn’t like red shirts.He likes the blue ones.
F. other, another, others 与the other的用法：
1.● ,◆ one…the other(one)…（两者中）另一个
例：I have two pens.One is red,the other (one) is blue.
2.● ,◆◆◆ one…the others/the other…（多者中）其余的
例:I have four good friends.One is a doctor,The others are workers.
3.● ,◆○○ one…another(one)…（多者中）另一个
例：I have five brothers.One is a doctor,another is a driver.the others are workers.
4.●●,◆◆○○ some…others/other ones…（多者中）有些
例：The boys are on the farm.Some are planting trees,others are watering the flowers.
5.●●●,◆◆◆ some…the others/the other ones（多者中）其余的
例：There are 15 books.Some are Chinese,the others are English.
注意：1)others,the others 单独使用，不用于修饰任何词。
2)another通常接单数名词，“另一个---”；但其后可接基数词+复数名词。
例：(1)Would you like another one (2)We’ll have another two-day holiday(=two days’ holiday)
(3)I need another few days (=a few more days)before I finish this book.
3)在分述三个或多个人或事物时，常用one---another---the third---句。
例：She has four friends.One is a worker,another is a teacher.the others are---.
G. a little,little;a few,few;many,much,a lot of;no(=not any),some,any等词用法略。
H.由some,any,no,every与one,body,thing构成的复合不定代词的用法：
1. 都表示单数概念。可作主语，宾语或表语。作主语时，谓语用单数。
例：1) I found nobody in the classroom.(宾) 2)Something is wrong with it.(主)
2. 当形容词或else修饰something,anyone,everything等时，定语后置。
例：1)I have something important to tell you.2)Do you want to tell anyone else
3. 当主句中主语是指人的复合不定代词时，反义问句主语常用they;指事物时，用it.
例：1)Everyone is here,aren’t they 2)Nobody was late last week,were they
3)Everything is ready,isn’t it 4)Nothing can stop us from studying,can it
注：1)everyone(人)不能用于of结构，而every one(人/物)可用于of结构。例：Every one of us likes maths.
2)some系列常用于肯定的陈述句或表委婉请求、希望得到肯定回答的问句。any系列常用于疑问、否定句中(any表“任何”义时可用于肯定句)
（六）相互代词的用法：
表示相互关系的代词称为相互代词。包括each other和one another.
一般而言，each other指两者或每两者之间；one another指多者相互之间，两短语基本可互换。可作宾语或定语（作定语时要在other或another后面加’s）
例：1)We must help each other. （宾语）2)We should point out one another’s shortcoming.（定语）
（七）疑问代词用法从略（参考特殊疑问句内容） （八）关系代词用法从略（参考定语从句内容）
**what 常用于涉及动作的内容 which后常带有特定范围
例：Let me tell you what I saw and heard in Hainan. Which of you jump farthest in your class 定语从句(The Attributive Clause)
一．概念理解：在复合句(包括主句和从句)中，修饰主句某一名词或代词的从句叫定语从句(起形容词的作用，在句中作定语；也可称之为形容词性从句)。
例：The man is a policeman. He lives next to us.
->The man who lives next to us is a policeman.
说明：被定语从句所修饰的词叫先行词 (名词前一般用定冠词the)；紧跟在先行词之后引导
定语从句的词叫引导词；定语从句放在先行词的后面。
注意：引导词可分为两类：
关系代词：who, whom, whose, that, which(what=that which不能引导定语从句)
关系副词：when, where, why (how不用来引导定语从句，而用that/in which)
注意：1. 定语从句前必须有先行词 （作主语、宾语、表语或补足语），否则就不没有说明或修饰的
中心内容。
2. 关系代词和关系副词连接先行词和定语从句，起联系作用，同时在定语从句中担任一定的
句子成分（但翻译时不译出来）。
根据定语从句与先行词的关系，定语从句可分为限制性定语从句及非限制性定语从句。限制性定语从句紧跟先行词，主句与从句不用逗号分开，从句不可省去，非限制性定语从句主句与从句之间有逗号分开，起补充说明作用，如省去，意思仍完整。
二．关系代词及其用法：
1). 先行词、关系代词的种类：
关系代词先行词 ( 主 语 ) 主 格(后 跟 动 词 ) (宾 语) 宾 格(后 有 主 语) (定 语)所 有 格(后 有 名 词)
人(动物拟人化) who , that whom / who, that whose/of whom
事物 which , that which , that whose / of which
事情 as as
根据先行词确定关系代词
使用什么关系代词，完全取决于先行词的性质(人或事物)、在从句中所担任的成分和它的人称、格和数。
例：1. The man who / that teaches us English is from the USA.
说明：先行词是man<人>，而且关系代词在从句中担任主语，所以用主格形式who或that；同时，先行词是单数第三人称，定语从句中的谓语动词须与之在人称和数上保持一致，所以要用teaches。
I want to buy the books that / which were written by LuXun.
说明：先行词是books<物>，而且关系代词在从句中担任主语，所以用主格形式which或that；同时，先行词是复数，定语从句中的谓语动词须与之在人称和数上保持一致，所以要用were。
例：2. The man (who / whom / that) I talked to just now is LiYan.
说明：先行词是man<人>，而且关系代词在从句中担任宾语，所以用宾格形式who或whom/that。
The pen (that / which) he gave me last week is black.
说明：先行词是pen<物>，而且关系代词在从句中担任宾语，所以用宾格形式which或that。
例：3. Do you know the man whose name is WangYu
Do you know the man the name of whom is WangYu
说明：先行词是man<人>，而且关系代词在从句中担任定语，所以用所有格whose或“名词+of whom”。
The book whose cover is black doesn’t belong to me.
The book the cover of which is black doesn’t belong to me.
说明：先行词是book<物>，而且关系代词在从句中担任定语，所以用所有格whose或“名词+of which”。
例：4. I have a lovely pet dog who /thathas four short legs.
说明：先行词是dog <动物，拟人化>，而且关系代词在从句中担任主语，所以可用主格形式who或that；同时，先行词是单数第三人称，定语从句中谓语动词须与之在人称和数上保持一致，所以要用has。
2). 确定和运用定语从句的思维步骤：
A.找出先行词、关系代词和关系代词的人称、数和性。
关系代词在定语从句中代替主句中的先行词，它们之间是一种“复指”关系。关系代词一般都跟
在先行词之后，定语从句中的谓语动词须与先行词的人称和数保持统一。
B.确定关系代词在从句中担任的成分，用以确定关系代词的格。
作主语：指人时，who比that常用；指事物时，that比which常用。(不能省略)
作宾语：指人时，that比whom常用；指事物时，that或which均可。(口语中常省略)
C.根据实际情况确定定语从句的时态和语态，不受主句的影响。
3). 指代事物时只能用that而不用which的几种特殊情况：
A.先行词all, any, one, none, few, little, much, something, anything, nothing, everything等不定代词时
例： 1. All (that) we have to do is to practice every day. 2. Is there anything (that) I can do for you
3. You’ll miss something that may be very important.
B.当先行词被all, any, few, little, no, just, some, much, every等修饰时。
例： 1. I have read all the books (that) you gave me.
2. He answered few questions (that) the teacher asked.
3. Jim told his father all the things that had happened.
C.当先行词被the only / very / right / same / last, one of等修饰时。
例：1. My purse is not the only thing that is missing. 2. These are the very words (that) he used.
3. He is the only person (that) I want to talk to.
D.当先行词是序数词或被序数词或形容词最高级修饰时。
例：1. The first lesson (that) I learned will never be forgotten.
2. That’s one of the most interesting books that are sold in the shop.
E.当先行词既有人又有物时。
例：They talked about things and persons (that) they remembered in the school.
F.当主句以who或which开头时，为了避免重复，不用who或which，而用that。
例：1. Who is the girl that spoke to you just now 2. Which is the car that was made in China
G.当关系代词在定语从句中作表语时。
例：China is not the country that it used to be.
注意：(1). whom/which作介词的宾语时，介词一般可放在whom/which之前，也可放在从句原来的位
置上；但是在含有介词的动词固定词组中，介词只能放在原来的位置上，保持其意义的相对独立与完整。
例：1. The room which there is a machine in is a workshop.
=The room in which there is a machine is a workshop.
2. This is the person whom you are looking for. (正确)
This is the person for whom you are looking. (错误)
(2). that引导定语从句时可以指人或物，在从句中作主语或谓语动词的宾语，但不能放在介词后面作介词的宾语。
例：1. Is that the parrot (that/which) you are looking for
2. She is the person (who/whom/that)I met at the school gate.
4). 指代事物时只能用which而不用that的几种特殊情况：
A.当关系代词前有介词时。
例：Is this the room in which Mr. White lives
B.在句子中有两个定语从句，前一从句关系代词已经用了that，另一个宜用which。
例：Let me show you the novel that I borrow from the library which was newly opened to us.
C.在非限定性定语从句中。
例：His dog, which was now very old, became ill and died.
D.当关系代词后面有插入语时。
例：Here’s the English grammar which, as I have told you, will help improve your English.
5). 指代人时宜用who而不能用that的几种特殊情况：
A. 先行词是one, ones, anyone或具有泛指意义的he等时。
例：1. One who has nothing to fear for oneself dares to tell the truth.
2. I will shoot anyone who moves.
3. He who does not reach the Great Wall is not a true man.
B. 当先行词是those时。
例：Those who want to go to the Great Wall sign up here. God helps those who help themselves.
C. 当先行词有较长的后置定语时。
例：I met a foreigner in the street who wished to visit you.
D. 带有两个定语从句，其中前一个关系代词是that时。
例：The boy that you met yesterday is the group leader who studies hard.
E. 在there be开头的句子中。
例：There is an old man who wants to see you.
as引导的定语从句
一．as可以代替整个句子或一件事，引导非限制性定语从句，在从句中作主语、宾语或表语，意为“正如……，就像……，据……”；从句位置可置于主句之前或之后，有时也可作为插入语置于句中，一般用逗号和主句隔开。
as的这种用法常见于以下这些结构: as we can see, as can be seen, as we know, as is（well）known, as may be imagined, as often happens, as has been said before, as was mentioned above, as is often the case, as/indeed it is, as has been said above，as anybody can see，etc.
1. As is well known, great changes have taken place in China.
Or: Great changes, as is well known, have taken place in China. ( as在定语从句中作主语)
2. This experiment is very simple，as indeed it is. (as在从句中作表语)
3. Things are not always as they appear.
4. The boy has as much progress as we had expected.
注意：which在引导非限制性定语从句时，也有和as一样的功能，可以代替整个句子，但which只能
用在主句之后。
在as所引导的非限制性定语从句中，如果运用的是被动语态结构，be动词可以省略；但which没有此用法，be动词不可省。
She married him，which was unexpected.＝She married him as（was）unexpected.
（作主语，代替前面的句子；用which时was不可省。）
1. As everyone knows, China is a beautiful country with a long history .
2. The earth , as we know, moves round the sun .
3. Tom works hard and is willing to help others, as we all know.
二 。 as除了代替整个句子，也可以代替主句中一个特定的词。as在它引导的定语从句（限制性或非限制性）中可以充当主语，宾语和表语；在这种用法中它经常和such, so, the same等词搭配使用；且当先行词中有such, so, the same等词修饰时，关系代词通常必须用as。
例:1. They were satisfied with this decision，as was agreed beforehand(事先)
( as在定语从句中作主语，其先行词是this decision)
2. I never heard such stories as he tells.( as在定语从句中作宾语，先行词是such stories.)
3. The place doesn't look the same as it was before liberation.( as在定语从句中作表语，先行词是same)
4. Have you bought the same book as I referred to yesterday ( as在定语从句中作宾语，先行词是book)
注意: 先行词中有the same修饰时，定语从句也可用that引导，但意思上有区别，as表示与此同类； that表示就是那一个，同物。
例: Have you brought the same book that I gave you yesterday
( that在定语从句中作宾语，先行词是book。体会：本句中所指的书是同一本，上句中指的是同一类书，而并不就是那一本。)
三．关系副词及其用法：
※ 关系副词在其引导的定语从句中作状语。
1). when指时间，只能跟在hour, moment, day, month, season, year等后面。(=at / in / on which)
例：1. This is the hour when the place is full of children.
2. Do you remember the time when she came to see you
2). where指地点，只能跟在village, town, city, home, place等的后面。 (=at / in / on which)
例：1. This is the place where I grew up.
2. She has gone home where she will stay for a week.
3). why 指原因，通常跟在reason后面( 不强调reason时可以省略)。 ( = for which)
例：1. Do you know the reason why he didn’t come on time
2. That’s the reason (why) she doesn’t like it.
●●注意：how虽然可以表方式，但是它不能引导定语从句来修饰way,而要用that或以in which的形式引导定语从句。
例：I don’t know the way that (in which) I can solve this problem. (正确)
I don’t know the way how I can solve this problem. (错误)
四．使用定语从句时要注意的几个问题：
A.关系词在定语从句中既是引导词又在定语从句中担任一定的句子成分。因此，如果关系词在定语从句中作宾语，那么定语从句中就不能再出现宾语了。
例：Some of the boys (that / who / whom) I invited didn’t come. (正确)
Some of the boys (that / who / whom) I invited them didn’t come. (错误)
B.注意定语从句中的谓语动词须与先行词在人称和数上保持一致。
例：Those who have done the work may go home. (正确)
Those who has done the work may go home. (错误)
C.注意在定语从句中作主语的关系代词不能省略，作宾语的可以省略。
例：1. The students who don’t study hard won’t pass the exam. (正确)
The students don’t study hard won’t pass the exam. (错误)
2. The train that/which was going to Beijing was late. (正确)
The train was going to Beijing was late. (错误)
D. 注意定语从句中不要多加关系副词或介词。
例：The house where I live needs repairing. (正确)
The house (that/which) I live in needs repairing. (正确)
The house in which I live needs repairing. (正确)
The house where I live in needs repairing. (错误)
E. 注意不要把所有的表示时间或地点的词叫先行词时都用when或where来引导定语从句。
例：1. I still remember the days (that/which) we spent together here. (正确)
I still remember the days when we spent together here. (错误)
2. This is the place (that/which) we visited last week. (正确)
This is the place where we visited last week. (错误)
说明：1. 当先行词（或关系词）在从句中作主语、宾语或限定语时，用关系代词；作状语时，用关
系副词。
例：1). The reason (that) he explained to us is not accepted by us all. (reason作explain的宾语)
The reason why he was absent away from the meeting is unknown. (reason作状语)
2). Most people dress in a way that shows off their personality. (way作主语)
Many young people today care about the way (that / in which) they look. (way作状语)
2. 定语从句中的谓语动词如果是及物动词或相当于及物动词的短语，其前面的关系词作它的
宾语，要用关系代词而不是关系副词；反之，如果是不及物动词，其前面的关系词是作它的状语的，要用关系副词而不是关系代词。
（即：当所选择的关系词不是作主语时，逢及物动词选关系代词，逢不及物动词选关系副词）
F. 注意“介词+关系代词”型的定语从句中，介词后只可用whom / which而不用who / that。
例：1. This is the book for which he asked.
(=This is the book he asked for.)
2. I don’t know the way in which you speak to your parents.
(=I don’t know the way that you speak to your parents.)
G. 关系副词when, where或why变为“介词+关系代词”的情况。
例：1. Do you remember the day when Mr. Smith gave us a lecture
= Do you remember the day on which Mr. Smith gave us a lecture
2. This is the place where we had a party last time.
= This is the place in which we had a party last time.
3. That’s the reason (why) she doesn’t like it.
= That’s the reason (for which) she doesn’t like it.
H. 部分含介词的固定短语动词一般不把动词和介词拆开使用，介词仍放在动词后面，使短语意义完整和相对独立。
例：Is this the book (that / which) you are looking for
※※五．(小结)定语从句的辨析与使用：
判断名词或代词与从句之间是否定语关系 定语从句。
找出先行词: 名词或代词。
1. 根据先行词确定引导定语从句的关系词：
代词： 人 → who / that / whom 副词： 时间 → when
物 → that / which 地点 → where
所有关系→whose / of which 原因 → why
方式 → that / in which
2. 确定关系词在从句中担任的成分以确定其形式：
主语 →主格(不省略) 宾语→宾格(可省略) 所属关系→ 所有格
状语→ when / where / why / in which
根据实际情况确定定语从句的时态(不受主句的限制)。
注意先行词(含修饰词)部分是否属于特殊情况。
关系代词指代物时只能用that或 which，指代人时只能用who或that的情况参考前面的第二大部分的3）→5）项的内容。
※※※检验方法：还原从句与先行词→从句 + 先行词
(即：把先行词移到从句谓语动词后，以动宾关系是否成立确定关系连接词)
1. 及物动词 + 宾语(名词/代词) → 关系代词(who / whom / that / which)
2. 不及物动词 + 介词 + 宾语 → 关系代词(who / whom / that / which)
3. 不及物动词 + 状语 (副词) → a.关系副词(when / where / why / in which)
b.关系代词(that / which + Vi + 介词)
c.关系代词(介词 + whom / which + Vi)
说明：1. 当先行词（或关系词）在从句中作主语、宾语或限定语时，用关系代词；作状语时，用关
系副词。
2. 定语从句中的谓语动词如果是及物动词或相当于及物动词的短语，其前面的关系词作它的宾语，要用关系代词而不是关系副词；反之，如果是不及物动词或表意完整的句子，其前面的关系词是作它的状语的，要用关系副词而不是关系代词。
（即：当所选择的关系词不是作主语时，逢及物动词选关系代词，逢不及物动词选关系副词）
●注意： 1.不要重复宾语 2.谓语与先行词保持统一 3.根据动词性质确定关系代词或副词
4.注意动宾关系 5. that/which/who特殊情况 6.注意短语的完整
同位语从句和定语从句的区别
同位语从句和定语从句都放在被修饰词后，从形式上看，十分相似。从以下几个方面来谈它们的区别。
从句所修饰词的不同。
同位语从句所修饰词通常是少数一些表抽象意义的名词，如belief, doubt, fact, hope, idea, news, thought, possibility, order, suggestion, wish, answer, information, conclusion, decision, discovery, knowledge, law, opinion, problem, promise, proof, question, report, truth, risk 等。
定语从句的先行词通常是指具体的名词或代词，如人、物、时间、地点或表抽象的原因、方式等。
例： He has told us a fact that drinking too much does harm to our health. (同位语从句)
We have no idea that her mother was a professor ten years ago. . (同位语从句)
This is the book that I bought yesterday. （定语从句）
I will never forget the day when I joined the Party. （定语从句）
2、 连接词的作用不同。
连接同位语从句的连接词(如that)只起连接作用，不在从句中担任任何句子成分，即名词与从句没有逻辑关系。whether 和 how 可以引导同位语从句，但不能引导定语从句。
连接定语从句的关系词(代词和副词)除了连接从句的作用外，还在定语从句中充当一定的句子成分，即先行词与从句有逻辑关系，在从句中作主语、宾语、定语、表语等。常见的关系代词和关系副词有that , which , who , whose , whom , when , where , why , as，than, but 等。
例：The news that he wants to get is whether he will be sent to the countryside.
(定语从句，关系代词that作从句get的宾语。)
Do you have a doubt whether she will be dismissed from school (同位语从句)
I have no idea how his parents were sad on hearing that their son was killed in the earthquake. (同位语从句)
比较：1. The news that they won the match is true. (同位语从句，news和从句没有逻辑关系)
The news that you told us yesterday is true. (定语从句，news是told逻辑宾语)
2. The order when we should return hasn’t reached us. (同位语从句，order和从句没有逻辑关系)
The day when New China was founded will never be forgotten. (定语从句，day是founded逻辑状语)
3、 从句作用的不同。
同位语从句具有名词的特点，对中心词作进一步补充解释说明，是中心词的具体内容。
定语从句具有形容词或副词的特点，对先行词起修饰、限定作用，描述先行词的性质或特征，与先行
词之间是所属关系。
例： The man that you saw just now is my bother. (定语从句)
The suggestion that the meeting be put off proved right. （同位语从句）
The suggestion that he had made is that the meeting be put off. （定语从句）
4、 连词的省略与否。
引导同位语从句的连词不可省略，而引导定语从句的关系词作宾语时常可省略。
5、 正确理解和使用同位语从句，还应注意以下几点：
A. 分隔同位语从句：
有时同位语从句与其先行词被其它成分分隔开来，这种分隔主要出于修辞原因，即为了保持句子结
构平衡，避免头重脚轻。
The whole truth came out at last that he was a wolf in sheep‘s clothing .
真相终于大白了，他原来是只披着羊皮的狼。
An order has come from Beijing that these thieves will be sentenced to death .
在某些名词后的同位语从句中，其谓语动词应用虚拟语气形式：（should） + 动词原形。常见的名词有advice, idea, order, demand, plan, proposal, suggestion, request 等。
例：The suggestion that a new bridge (should) be built was accepted . 采纳了在这里修建一座新桥的建议。
C. 同位语从句的先行词往往没有复数形式。
例： 他要来教我们英语的消息昨天我就听说了。
（正）The message that he would teach us English reached me yesterday .
(误) The messages that he would teach us English reached me yesterday .名词性从句
在句子中起名词作用的句子叫名词从句 (Noun Clauses）。 名词从句的功能相当于名词词组, 它在复合句 ( http: / / baike. / view / 137894.htm" \t "_blank )中能担任主语、宾语、表语、同位语、介词宾语等，因此根据它在句中不同的语法功能，名词从句又可分别称为主语从句 ( http: / / baike. / view / 100914.htm" \t "_blank )、宾语从句 ( http: / / baike. / view / 343.htm" \t "_blank )、表语从句 ( http: / / baike. / view / 190748.htm" \t "_blank )和同位语从句 ( http: / / baike. / view / 179.htm" \t "_blank )。
一、引导名词性从句的连接词
引导名词性从句的连接词可分为三类：
A. 连词：that（无任何词意）
　　whether, if（表示“是否”，表明从句内容的不确定性）
　　as if, as though（表示“好像”，“似乎”）
　　以上在从句中均不充当任何成分
B. 连接代词 ( http: / / baike. / view / 141.htm" \t "_blank )：what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whose, whichever,whomever
　 连接副词 ( http: / / baike. / view / 723555.htm" \t "_blank )：when, where, how, why,how many,how much
C. 不可省略的连词：
　　1. 介词后的连词
　　2. 引导主语从句和同位语从句的连词不可省略。
　　That she was chosen made us very happy.
　　We heard the news that our team had won.
　　比较：
　　whether与if 均为"是否"的意思。 但在下列情况下，whether 不能被if 取代：
　　1. whether引导主语从句并在句首
　　2. 引导表语从句
　　3. whether从句作介词宾语
　　4. 从句后有"or not"
Whether he will come is not clear.
　　大部分连接词引导的主语从句都可以置于句末，用 it充当形式主语 ( http: / / baike. / view / 954899.htm" \t "_blank )。
　　It is not important who will go.
It is still unknown which team will win the match.
主语从句(The Subject Clause)
作句子主语的从句叫主语从句。主语从句通常由从属连词 ( http: / / baike. / view / 1082718.htm" \t "_blank )that，whether，if和连接代词what，who，which，whatever，whoever以及连接副词how，when，where，why等词引导。
that在句中无词义，只起连接作用；连接代词和连接副词在句中既保留自己的疑问含义、又起连接作用，在从句中充当从句的成分。
例：What he wants to tell us is not clear.
　　Who will win the match is still unknown.
　　It is known to us how he became a writer.
Where the English evening will be held has not yet been announced.
注意：主语为从句时，从句谓语动词一般要用单数形式；但如果what引导的从句做主语、代表复数概念（常可从表语上看出）时，谓语动词则常用复数形式。
What we need is water. What we need are useful books.
有时为避免句子头重脚轻，常用形式主语it代替主语从句作形式主语放于句首，而把主语从句置于句末。主语从句后的谓语动词一般用单数形式。常用句型如下：
（1）It + be + 名词 + that从句
（2）It + be + 形容词 + that从句
（3）It + be + 动词的过去分词 ( http: / / baike. / view / 26744.htm" \t "_blank ) + that从句
（4）It + 不及物动词 + that 从句
例：That light travels in straight lines is known to all.
→It’s known to all that light travels in straight lines.
注意：A. that引导的主语从句大多数要放在句末。
B. what---引导的主语从句一般不用it作形式主语的结构。
C. 由whether及其他连词引导的主语从句放在句首或句末皆可。
D. 如果带主语从句的句子是疑问式，则须用it作形式主语结构。
Has it been announced when the planes are to take off
注意: 在主语从句中用来表示惊奇、怀疑、惋惜、理应如此等语气时，谓语动词要用虚拟语气 ( http: / / baike. / view / 26751.htm" \t "_blank ) “(should) +do”，常用的句型有：
　It is necessary (important, natural, strange, etc.) that …
　It is a pity (a shame, no wonder, etc.) that…
　It is suggested (requested, proposed, desired, etc.) that…
注意：it引导的强调句与it作形式主语的复合句不可混淆。
强调句是用来对所表达句中的某一成分加以强调的特殊句型。其结构为：.
It is/was + 强调部分 + that / who ---. (人用who或that;其他用that)
例：I met John in the street yesterday.
A. It was I that/who met John in the street yesterday.(强调主语)
B. It was John that/who I met in the street yesterday.(强调宾语)
C. It was in the street that I met John yesterday. (强调地点状语，不用where)
D. It was yesterday that I met John in the street. (强调时间状语，不用when)
强调主语时，从句谓语动词的人称和数要与被强调的部分一致（即：与原主语一致）。
例：It is I who/that am your true friend.
宾语从句(The Object Clause)
在复合句中用作宾语的从句叫宾语从句。动词、介词和形容词都可以带宾语从句。
例：1) I think (that) he can do the job well.
2) Did she say anything about how we should do the work
3) I’m not sure whether / if I’ll have time.
学好宾语从句要过好三道关：
* 第一关，选好连接词（也叫关联词）。引导宾语从句的连接词。
连词that：只起连接作用，在从句中不作句子成分，也无词义，口语中或非正式文体中常被省略。
（连接陈述句； 信息完整，不表疑问）
(主句动词常为表肯定概念的观点、看法、意念、要求等，如：believe, feel, hear, hope, expect, explain,
prefer, promise, report, say, see, think, understand, wish warn等)
例： 1）He knew（that）he should work hard．
2）I am glad（that）you’ve passed the exam．
2.连词whether或if：起连接作用，在从句中不作句子成分，作“是否”解，口语或非正式文体中多用if。
（连接一般/选择疑问句/反义疑问句；信息完整，但有疑问，用if/whether）
(主句动词常为表疑问意义的观点、看法、意念、要求等，如：ask, wonder, want to know, don’t know,
can’t remember等)
例： 1) Do you know whether he will ride here at 8 tomorrow morning？
2）Tom didn’t know if ／whether his grandpa liked the present．
作“是否”解的if 和whether在具体用法上差别较大，同学们不易掌握。在宾语从句中用whether没有用 if 时受到那么多限制。（whether 比 if 用得广）
例： 3）He asked me whether or not I was coming．他问我是否要来。
（该句中的whether不能换成if，因为if不能与or连用）
**注意：在下列情况下，一般用whether而不用if:
A. 在介词后，作介词的宾语：We didn’t think about whether it would rain the next day.
that引导的宾语从句只有在except, but, besides, in等少数介词后偶尔可以用到。
Your article is all right except that it is too long.
有时在介词和其宾语从句的中间加形式宾语it:
I’ll see to it that everything is ready. (see to 负责)
B. 后跟不定式构成不定式短语：She can’t decide whether to get there tomorrow.
C. 与or…not连用：I don’t know whether he is free or not.
D. 提出两种选择时：Tell me whether it’s a boy or a girl.
E. 在discuss, consider, decide后: We discussed whether we would go to Beijing the next week.
F. 宾语从句位于句首时：Whether the plane will arrive on time, we are not sure.
G. 引导主语、表语或同位语从句时：Whether he will go to Beijing tomorrow hasn’t decided yet.
温馨提示：当用if会造成误解时，常用whether而不用if。
例：Please tell me if he will arrive tomorrow. (是否，最好换成whether)
Please tell me if he arrives tomorrow.(如果)
3. A. 连接代词who, whom, whose, what, which：起连接作用，作句子成分，各有意义。
例： 1）The teacher asked the new student which class he was in？
（which引导宾语从句，在从句中作定语，修饰class，意为“哪个”）
2）Can you tell me what he is saying？
(what引导宾语从句，在从句中作say宾语,涉及说话内容)
注意：what = all that；what 与that不能混用。
B. 连接副词when, where, why, how：起连接作用，分别作时间、地点、原因、方式状语，各有其自己的意义。
例： 1）I wonder where he got so much money．
（where在从句中作地点状语，修饰got，意为“哪里；什么地方”）
2）He didn’t tell me how old his friend was．
（how引导宾语从句，作程度状语，修饰old，意为“怎样；如何”等意）
(注意： 信息不完整，缺句子成分，有疑问，用特殊疑问词。)
友情提示：当连接词是whether或特殊疑问词而且主句主语或宾语与从句的主语一致时，常可变为
“whether/特殊疑问词 + 不定式”的形式作宾语 （此时为简单句）
例： 1. She can’t decide whether she will get there tomorrow.
->She can’t decide whether to get there tomorrow.
2. She told me what I should do next. -> She told me what to do next.
**第二关，宾语从句的语序是陈述句语序，即“连接词＋主语＋谓语＋其他”。特别强调的是，它的主语和谓语的语序是陈述句的语序(包括疑问词作句子的主语)，不是疑问句的倒装语序。
例：1）You must remember what your teacher said．
2）Dad ,do you know when the football game will start？
3) Can you tell me who（whom）we have to see？
4) Could you tell me which is the way to the post office, please
5) Do you know what was wrong with Tom last week
6) Would you please tell me what’s the matter with the boy (第4-6句疑问词做主语)
(提示：what’s the matter---？句式为约定俗成习惯表达，无论是独立问句抑或为从句，语序保持不变)
错句的错误往往出在宾语从句中误用疑问句的结构——主语前加个助动词do。因为我们已经习惯了特殊疑问句，如：what time does the plane arrive in Paris？就顺口说出“Do you know what time does the plane arrive in Paris？”这种错误句子来。但是一旦我们注意了，不久就习惯于说“Do you know what time the plane arrives in Paris？”了。
***第三关，注意时态的呼应。 宾语从句中谓语动词的时态，常常受主句谓语时态的制约，这种现象称为“时态的呼应”。
例：误：I thought（that）you are free today．
正：I thought（that）you would be free today．
错句中宾语从句用are很可能是因为有 today，但因为主句谓语是thought，所以从句谓语就该用过去将来时would be了。 这种时态的呼应，如果主句谓语是现在时或将来时，宾语从句的谓语时态不受限制。如果主句时态是过去时，宾语从句一般要随着改为相应的过去时（即一般过去时、过去进行时、过去完成时、过去将来时等）。
例：1）He thought he was working for the people．
2）I heard she had been to the Great Wall．
3）John hoped that he would find a job soon．
*注意: A. 宾语从句如果表示定理法则、永恒真理等，则不变化：
例： The teacher told us that the earth moves around the sun．
The teacher told us that light travels faster than sound.
The teacher told us that the sun rises in the east.
B. Could/Would you (please) tell me------ 句式表客气委婉的现在时而非过去时，宾语从句根据具体情况用相应的时态：
例：Could you tell me whether LiLei has gone to Canada
C. 在demand、order、suggest、decide、insist, desire, request, command等表示要求、命令、建
议、决定等意义的动词后，宾语从句常用“（should）+ 动词原形”。
例：I insist (坚持) that she (should) do her work alone.
　　The captain ordered that troops (部队) (should) set off at once.
*注意：1. 如直接引语是祈使句时，须以相应的不定式作宾语补足语的形式表达。
例：1). Mrs Zhao said to me, “Open the door ,please.” ->Mrs Zhao asked me to open the door.
2).Mother said to me, “Don’t play with fire” ->Mother told me not to play with fire.
3). “Stand straight!” the captain said to them. -> The captain ordered them to stand straight.
2. 感叹句变为间接引语时，宾语从句的引导词仍然用what或how引导。注意人称和时态的变化，语序不变；也可使用that引导的宾语从句（引述动词常为say, tell, cry, shout等不含疑问意义的动词）
例：We said, “What a clever monkey it is!”
We said what a clever monkey it was. / We said that it was a clever monkey.
3. 如果宾语从句后面有宾语补足语时，要使用it作形式宾语，而将从句放在补足语后面。
例: I thought it strange that he failed to call me.
*注意：在think, believe, imagine, suppose, expect等动词之后的宾语从句中，如果从句谓语是否定含义，则不用否定形式，而将主句的谓语动词think等变为否定形式(即否定转移)
例：I don’t think (that) you are wrong, are you
(主句以第一人称I/we做主语时，反义问句与从句的主谓呼应)
He doesn’t believe (that) Ann is ill, does he
(主句以第二、三人称作主语时，反义问句与主句的主谓呼应)
(巧记方式：“一从宾句，二三从主句”；相信“自己”，怀疑“别人” )
在think, believe, suppose, imagine, guess, hope等动词以及I’m afraid 等后，可用so代替一个肯定的宾语从句，还可用not代替一个否定的宾语从句。
例：- Do you believe it will clear up (转晴) - I believe so. 或 I believe not. / I don’t believe so.
小结：(一) 连接词
1). 陈述句用引导词that（可省略）连接
2). 疑问句
A. 一般疑问句用引导词if或whether连接
B. 否定的一般疑问句用引导词whether--- or not连接
C. 选择疑问句用whether --- or---连接
D. 反义疑问句用whether --- or not连接
E. 特殊疑问句用原来的疑问词连接
3). 感叹句用原来的how或what连接（语序不变，时态适当调整）
4). 祈使句用不定式做宾补
(二)语序
宾语从句的语序是陈述句语序，即“连接词＋主语＋谓语＋其他”。特别强调的是，它的主语和谓语的语序是陈述句的语序(包括疑问词作句子的主语)，不是疑问句的倒装语序。
(三)时态的呼应
宾语从句中谓语动词的时态，常常受主句谓语时态的制约：如果主句谓语是现在时、将来时或祈使句的时候，宾语从句的谓语时态不受限制。如果主句时态是过去时，宾语从句一般要随着改为相应的过去时（即一般过去时、过去进行时、过去完成时、过去将来时等）。
表语从句(the Predicative Clause)
在句中作表语的从句叫表语从句。引导表语从句的关联词与引导主语从句的关联词大致一样，表语从句位于连系动词后，有时用as if引导。
其基本结构为：主语 + 系动词 + that从句。
例：The fact is that we have lost the game.
　　That’s just what I want.
　　This is where our problem lies.
　　That is why he didn’t come to the meeting.
It looks as if it is going to rain.
It seems as if it were going to rain. (虚拟语气)
注意: 当主语是reason时，表语从句要用that引导而不是because。
例：The reason why he was late was that he missed the train by one minute this morning .
【注意】whether 可引导表语从句，但与之同义的if却通常不用于引导表语从句。
同位语从句(the Appositive Clause)
同位语从句说明其前面的名词的具体内容。同位语从句通常由that引导，可用于同位语从句的名词有advice、demand、doubt、fact、hope、idea、information、message、news、order、problem、promise、question、request、suggestion、truth、wish、word等。
例: The news that we won the game is exciting.
　 I have no idea when he will come back home.
　 The thought came to him that Mary had probably fallen ill.
同位语从句和定语从句 ( http: / / baike. / view / 56536.htm" \t "_blank )的区别：
that作为关系代词，可以引导定语从句，充当句子成分，在从句中作宾语时可以省略；
that引导同位语从句时，起连词的作用，没有实际意义，不充当句子成分，一般不能省略。
试比较下面两个例句:
　　I had no idea that you were here．（that引导同位语从句，不能省略）
Have you got the idea（that）this book gives you of life in ancient Greece？
（that引导定语从句，作宾语，可以省略）
总结
名词性that-从句
1）由从属连词that引导的从句叫做名词性that-从句。 that只起连接主句和从句的作用，在从句中不担任任何成分，本身也没有词义。名词性that-从句在句中能充当主 语、宾语、表语、同位语和形容词宾语。
主语：That she is still alive is her luck.
宾语：John said that he was leaving for London on Wednesday.　
表语：The fact is that he has not been seen recently.　
同位语：The fact that he has not been seen recently disturbs everyone in his office.
形容词宾语：I am glad that you are satisfied with your job.
2）that-从句作主语通常用it作先行词，而将that-从句置于句末。
　 It is quite clear that the whole project is doomed to failure.　
　 It's a pity that you should have to leave.　
　　用it作形式主语的that-从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系：
　a. It + be +形容词+ that-从句
　　It is necessary that…　有必要……
　　It is important that…　重要的是……
　　It is obvious that…　很明显……
　b. It + be + -ed 分词+ that-从句
　　It is believed that…　人们相信……
　　It is known to all that…　众所周知……
　　It has been decided that…　已决定……
　c. It + be +名词+ that-从句
　　It is common knowledge that…　……是常识
　　It is a surprise that…　令人惊奇的是……
　　It is a fact that…　事实是……
　d. It +不及物动词+ that-从句
　　It appears that…　似乎……
　　It happens that…　碰巧……
It occurred to me that…　我突然想起……
名词性wh-从句
1）由wh-词引导的名词从句叫做名词性wh-从句。Wh-词包括who, whom,. whose, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever等连接代词和where, when, how, why等连接副词。wh-从句的语法功能除了和that-从句一样外，还可充当介词宾语、宾语补语和间接宾语等.
主语： How the book will sell depends on its author.
直接宾语：In one's own home one can do what one likes.　
间接宾语：The club will give whoever wins a prize.　
表语： My question is who will take over president of the Foundation.
宾语补足语：She will name him whatever she wants to.
同位语：　I have no idea when he will return.　
形容词宾语：I'm not sure why she refused their invitation.　
介词宾语：　That depends on where we shall go.　
2）wh从句作主语也常用先行词it做形式主语，而将wh-从句置于句末。
　　It is not yet decided who will do that job.　
It remains unknown when they are going to get married.
if, whether引导的名词从句
1）yes-no型疑问从句
　从属连词if, whether引导的名词从句是由一般疑问句或选择疑问转化而来的，因此也分别被称为yes-no型疑问句从句和选择型疑问从句，其功能和wh-从句的功能相同。
　主语：Whether the plan is feasible remains to be proved.
　宾语：Let us know whether / if you can finish the article before Friday.　
　表语：The point is whether we should lend him the money.　
　同位语：They are investigating the question whether the man is trustworthy.　
　形容词宾语： She's doubtful whether we shall be able to come.　
　介词宾语： I worry about whether he can pass through the crisis of his illness.　
2）选择性疑问从句
　选择性疑问从句由关联词if/whether…or或whether…or not构成。
　　Please tell me whether / if they are Swedish or Danish.
　　I don't care whether you like the plan or not.
　if和whether的区别：
1、 在动词不定式之前只能用whether。
　 I can’t decide whether to stay. 我不能决定是否留下。
2、 在whether …… or not 的固定搭配中。
　I want to know whether it’s good news or not . 我想知道是否是好消息。
3 、在介词后，只能用whether。
　His father is worried about whether he lose his work . 他的父亲担心是否会失去工作。
4、宾语从句放在句首表示强调时，只能用whether。
　　Whether this is true or not, I really don’t know. 这是否真的，我真的不知道。
　　Whether they can finish the work on time is still a problem. 他们是否能准时完成这项工作还是个问题。
5、用if会引起歧义时，只用whether。
　　Could you tell me if you know the answer
这句话有两种意思：“你能告诉我是否知道答案吗？”或“如果你知道答案，请告诉我，好吗？”。如用whether可避免歧义.
否定转移
　1) 将think, believe, suppose, expect, fancy, imagine等动词后面宾语从句的否定词转移到主句中，即主句的谓语动词用否定式，而从句的谓语动词用肯定式。
　　I don't think I know you.　我想我并不认识你。
　　I don' t believe he will come.　我相信他不回来。
注意：若谓语动词为hope,宾语从句中的否定词不能转移。
　　I hope you weren't ill. 我想你没有生病吧。
　2) 将seem, appear 等后的从句的否定转移到前面。
　　It doesn't seem that they know where to go.看来他们不知道往哪去。
　　It doesn't appear that we'll have a sunny day tomorrow.看来我们明天不会碰上好天气。
　3) 有时将动名词 ( http: / / baike. / view / 26625.htm" \t "_blank )，介词短语或整个从句的否定转变为对谓语动词的否定。
　　I don't remember having ever seen such a man.(not否定动名词短语)
It's not a place where anyone would expect to see strange characters on the street.
(anyone 作主语，从句中的谓语动词不能用否定形式。)
　4) 有时状语或状语从句中否定可以转移到谓语动词前。
　　The ant is not gathering this for itself alone.　(否定状语)　
　　He was not ready to believe something just because Aristotle said so. (否定because状语)
　　She had not been married many weeks when that man's younger brother saw her and was struck by her beauty. (否定状语many weeks)　简单句(Types of Simple Sentences)
1．主语+谓语 (S+V) (谓语为不及物动词vi.)
例：A. Class begins at eight o’clock. B. The sun rises in the east.
C. The small boy can’t write. D. They are talking and laughing happily.
常见的不及物动词：listen, look, happen, go, come, arrive, work, stay, rise, talk等。
2．主语+谓语+宾语 (S+V+O) (谓语为及物动词vt.)
例：A. I couldn’t see anything.
B. We raise our national flag every Monday.
C. The small boy can’t write any words.
D. They’re listening to the teacher carefully.
E. I’ll tell her the news when she returns.
注意：有些动词只做及物动词使用：reach, tell, show, hear, raise, teach, put等。
有些动词既做及物动词也可做不及物动词使用：write, know, open等。
不及物动词如要带宾语，须加相应的介词形成动词短语后再接宾语。
listen ( to) .laugh (at).wait (for).look (at),talk (to/with)等。
3．主语+谓语+表语 (S+V+P) (谓语为连系动词Link v.)
例：A. He was ill last week.(形) B. Keep quiet, please!（形）
C. I feel very well today.(形) D. The mooncake tastes like the pie.(介短)
E. LiLei became a soldier.(名) F. The food has gone bad.(形)
G. The bread feels hard.(形) H. LiLei fell ill last Monday.(形)
I. In spring, the weather gets warm and the trees turn green.(形)
注意：常见连系动词：
1).be
2). keep(保持), stay(保持), remain(保持) 等
3).感官动词feel(感觉/摸上去),look(看上去),seem(似乎),smell(闻起来),taste(尝起来),sound(听起来)，
appear(看上去，显得)等。
注意：主语和感官动词常呈被动关系。
4).表“变化”的动词：become(成为),turn(变得),get(变得),grow(长得), go(变得), come (true)(实现), fall(ill/asleep)等。
5). 其他：prove (证明), stand(处于某种状态) 等
4. 主语+谓语+间接宾语+直接宾语(双宾语) (S + V + InO + DO)
*间接宾语一般是人，直接宾语一般是事或物；谓语为双重及物性动词。
例：A. Tom showed me his new book.(=Tom showed his new book to me.)
常见的能接双宾语的动词并可以to引起间接宾语的词：bring, lend, pass, hand,offer,write,tell, teach,
send, post,sing,show,sell,return,read,pay,give,throw,take等。
B. I bought Jim a present. (=I bought a present for Jim.)
常见的能接双宾语的动词并可以for引起间接宾语的词：bring, book, build, fix,buy,cook, cut, find,
get, design, fetch, keep,leave,make,order,paint,pick,prepare,save, sing, take, win, write, play, mend等
C. We wished them a safe journey.
**有些动词的间接宾语不能以to或for引起，而只能放在直接宾语前面。
常见此类用法的动词：allow, ask, cause, cost, draw, refuse, promise(答应)等
*注：A\B中直、间接宾语互换位置时，间接宾语前加介词to（表动作方向性）或for（表动作目的性）；
但如果直接宾语(事/物)是代词时，只能用括号中的形式。
例：I’ll give it to Kate. 而不能说 I’ll give Kate it.
5. 主语+谓语+宾语+宾语补足语(复合宾语) (S+V+O+OC)，谓语为复合及物动词
例：A. They called their baby Kate. (名词)
常见此类用法的动词：make, name, call等。
B.1).The glasses keep our eyes safe. (形容词)
I think it hard to study Chinese well.
Don’t leave the door open.
Can you make the matter clear
常见此类用法的动词：make, get, think, find, leave, feel, wash, cut等。
2).When I went to LiLei’s home, I found him out/in. (副词)
C. Miss Li told us to return the library book on time. (带to不定式)
常见此类用法的动词：ask, tell, want, like, would like, get, teach, wish, help等。
D. LingFeng made the baby not cry any more. (省略to的不定式)
I often watch the boys play games.
常见此类用法的动词：have, let, make; feel, find, see, watch, hear, notice, observe,suggest, look at, listen to, help等。
E. I watch them playing games. (现在分词)
I’ve kept you waiting so long.
We didn’t see any of the deer left. (过去分词)
常见此类用法的动词：feel, hear, see, watch, find, notice, observe, have, make, keep, leave等。
注意1).动词不定式作宾补，常表示宾语所做动作的全过程并已结束。
现在分词作宾补，常表示宾语所做的动作正在发生或进行中。
例：A. I watched them just now. They played football.
→I watched them play football just now.
B. I watched them just now. They were playing football.
→I watched them playing football just now.
2).现在分词作宾补，常表示宾语和动词是主动关系并且动作正在进行。
过去分词作宾补常表示宾语和动词是被动关系并且动作已经结束。
例： I saw the little boy leaving his home for school.
I saw the little boy left alone in the lonely house.
F. I can’t leave the child in the room. (介词短语)
6.特殊结构：there be(lived / stand ---)结构是一种特殊的简单句倒装句型：
例：There was a dog and three chickens in the garden.
There lived a poor farmer in the valley long, long ago.
并列句(The Compond Sentence)
一．概念理解：如果句子包含两个或更多互不依从的简单句，则称之为并列句。并列句通常用一个并列连词来连接。其结构为：简单句+并列连词+简单句
二．并列句类型：
A. 联合并列句：由and, or, so, not only---but also, both--- and等连接，表示并列关系。
例：1. This is mine and that is yours. 2. She is not only my mother but also my teacher.
3. Neither he nor I am a teacher. 4. I will go to Shanghai or I will go to Hangzhou.
注意：not only---but also, neither---nor 等为并列词组，连接并列主语时，谓语动词的人称和数应与最近的主语保持一致，即“就近规则”。
B. 转折并列句：由but, still, however (然而), while(同时), when(就在这时)等连接，表示转折关系。
例：1. He made a promise, but he didn’t keep it. 2. He is tall while his brother is very short.
3. He is young, but he is very strong. 4. I was watching TV when Jim came in.
C. 因果并列句：由so (所以), for(因为), and等连接表示因果关系。
例：1. I must be off now, for Ann is waiting for me.2. Be quick, and you’ll catch the early bus.
3. I was much too tired, so I want to have a good rest.
D. 选择并列句：由or, either --- or等连接表示选择关系。
例：1. Hurry up, or you’ll be late. 2. You must get here on time, or we’ll leave without you.
3. Either come in or go out. 4. Either you or I am wrong.
注意：either---or连接并列主语时，应遵循“就近规则”
复合句(The Complex Sentence)
概念理解：由一个主句和一个或多个从句构成。主句是全句的主体，可以单独存在，而从句只作为句
子的一个成分，不能独立使用。从句与主句之间的关系是从属关系，常由关系词连接。从句在复合句中可做主、宾、表、定、状和同位语等。从句担任什么句子成份就叫什么从句。
根据从句在句中的作用，分为名词性从句(含主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句)，
形容词性从句(即定语从句)，副词性从句(即状语从句)等。
例：1. What he said made all of us laugh. (主语从句)
2. I don’t know what I can do for that. (宾语从句)
3. That is what I want. (表语从句)
4. The news that they won the match is true. (同位语从句)
5. He was the only person who was invited. (定语从句)
6. You’ll be late if you don’t hurry. (状语从句)
** 初中阶段应主要掌握宾语从句、状语从句和定语从句的用法。**名词(Noun)
概念：表示人或事物名称的词叫名词。英语中常用n.表示。
分类：
专有名词：表示个人、地点、机构、节日或事物所专有的名称。一般是独一无二的名称， 第一个字母必须大写。如：Edison,China,English,No.5Middle School,Sunday,September,A Tale of Two Cities等。
如果是由词组构成的专有名词，在单独使用时，除冠词、连词和介词外，每一个词的第一个字母都要
大写。如：the Olympic Games,the Great Wall等。
普通名词：表示某一类人、事物或抽象概念的名词。普通名词包括四类：
A 个体名词：表单个的人或事物。如：child,car,school,foot等。
B 集体名词： 表有若干个体组成的集体。如：class,family,people,police,team等。
C 物质名词：表无法分为个体的事物。如：water,paper,glass,metal等。
D 抽象名词：表动作、状态、品质、感情等抽象概念。如：life,work,health,等。
三．名词的数：名词分为可数名词和不可数名词。
1．可数名词：大多数有单复数形式，包括个体和集体名词。
**A名词复数的构成和读音规则
规则变化
情况 构成方式 读音 例词
一般情况 加-s 清|s|，元/浊|z| bikes,teachers,girls
以s/x/ch/sh结尾**特例** 加-es 加-s -es读|iz| buses,boxes,brushes, matches*stomachs IkI
以ce/se/ze/（d）ge结尾 加-s 读|iz| pieces,oranges,houses|’hauziz|
元音字母+y结尾 加-s 读|z| boys,keys
辅音字母+y结尾 变y为i,加-es 读|z| cities,babies,factories
以f或fe结尾**特例** 变f(e)为v,加-es直接加-s 读|vz| 读|fs| leaf-leaves,knife-knivesroofs,beliefs,chiefs
以辅音字母+O结尾 有生命的加-es无生命的加-s 读|z|读|z| tomatoes,potatoes,heroesphotos,pianos,radios
不规则变化
man-men, woman-women, policeman-policemen,Frenchman-Frenchmen *a-e
** German-Germans, human-humans
2) foot-feet, tooth-teeth,goose-geese *oo-ee
3) mouse-mice,child-children ox-oxen
B man doctor->men doctors, woman teacher->women teachers (前后均变)
C bus-driver->bus drivers,letter-box->letter-boxes,grow-up->grow-ups (变在最后)
D sheep-sheep,deer-deer,fish-fish,Chinese-Chinese,Japanese-Japanese, Swiss-Swiss 等 *(单复同)
E people,police总做复数用；但people作“民族”讲时，有单、复数形式。
The Chinese are a brave and hard-working people.
police作为集体名词，总做复数用；如表个体，需变为policeman/woman。
F news,maths,physics做单数用;trousers,scissors,thanks,congratulations总为复数式
G 集体名词family,team,class,population, audience指整体视为单数；指个体视为复数。
例：The whole family is going to England for their holiday.（全家人，视为单数）
All the family are having supper now. （家庭成员，视为复数）
H 单数和复数词义不同：
work(工作)-works（工事）,paper(纸)-a paper/papers(文件/试卷),sand(沙)-sands(沙地/漠)，glass(玻璃)
-a glass/glasses(玻璃杯/眼镜) life(生活)-lives(生命)
I 复合形容词中，名词用单数
a two-month holiday (=two months’ holiday); an eight-year-old girl (=a girl of eight years old)
J年份加-ｓ或-’ｓ，表世纪与年代 in the 1980s/1980’s （20世纪80年代）
2.不可数名词：常以单数形式出现，包括物质和抽象名词。（复数式常表种类）
A.fish-fishes,fruit-friuts,drink-drinks,wood-woods等物质名词表不同种类。
B. wood(木材)-woods(森林),time(时间)-times(时代),room(空间)-rooms(房间)，exercise(锻炼)-exercises(操/
练习)等物质或抽象名词的单复数式意义不同。
C.cold-a cold(感冒)-catch a cold(患感冒)，noise(噪音)-make a noise(吵闹)，snow(雪)-a heavy snow(一场雪) 等不可数名词与a,an连用时常表一场/种---。
D.如果对不可数名词表示复数形式，可用“数量短语+of+不可数名词”的形式（同样适用于可数名词）
a small piece of paper,two glasses of milk,a pair of glasses,two boxes of books
**some,any,no,enough,a lot /lots of,plenty of等可修饰可数也可修饰不可数名词
much,little,a little,a bit of,a deal of等只常用来修饰不可数名词
many,several,a few,few,a number of等只常用来修饰可数名词复数
四．名词所有格
格是名词或代词的形式变化，表示名词或代词在句中与其他词之间的结构和语义关系。英语的格分为主格、宾格和所有格。主格做主语，宾格作宾语，所有格表所属关系。
1．名词所有格构成方法：
A.表有生命事物的名词所有格，单数名词和不以s结尾的复数名词一般在词尾加“’s”;以s结尾的复数名词在词尾加“’”。
例：my father’s room Children’s Day Teachers’ Day
以-s结尾的专有名词，构成所有格仍然加’s或只加’，但读音都是|iz|.
例：Mr Jones’s (Mr Jones’) book （琼斯先生的书）
B.表示时间、距离的名词所有格，单数名词后加“’s”，复数名词后加“’”。
例：half an hour’s walk three days’ holiday/time today’s newspaper
C.国家、城市等表地方的名词虽然是无生命的名词，但所有格也可用“’s”。
例：China’s population the school’s library
D.表无生命的事物的名词（除表时间、距离、国家、城市、季节、太阳、地球、江河湖海等名词外），一般要用of来表示所有关系。
例：the door of the room the name of the ship the end of the week
E.双重所有格的构成与使用：
同时用两种名词所有格结构的所有格称为双重所有格。用来避免名词的重复、加强语气或表示某种感彩。通常在表示所属物的名词前加冠词、数词、不定代词或指示代词。
基本结构：冠词（等）+名词+名词所有格
例：a friend of my sister’s = one of my sister’s friends some friends of mine = some of my friends
**注意：双重所有格与“of+名词”结构的侧重点不同
a picture of Tom’s = one of Tom’s pictures汤姆（拥有的）一张照片
a picture of Tom 汤姆（本人的）一张照片
2．名词所有格使用中应注意的问题：
A 某一事物为两者所共有时，在后一个名词上加“’s”；如果各自拥有时则在每个名词后加“’s”.
例：Lily and Lucy’s mother(单数) Jack’s and Tom’s rooms(复数)
B 在某些情况下，有生命的名词所有格也可以用of短语构成.
例：the boy’s brother =the brother of the boy China’s population=the population of China
C 表示居所、商店、办公室等时，名词所有格后通常省略它修饰的名词。
例：the Zhang’s(张家) the doctor’s(诊所) the teacher’s(教师办公室) Uncle Li’s(李叔叔家)
D “基数词 －单数可数名词”构成的合成词=“基数词+复数名词的所有格”
例：a two-hour walk = two hours’ walk
** 注意：名词所有格的读音与名词复数读音规则相同。
数词(Numeral)
一．概念理解：表示数字、数目和顺序的词称为数词。英语中用num.表示。
二．数词的种类：基数词和序数词
三．A. 基数词的构成：
1.1-12无规律，都是独立单词；13-19多是以个位基数词加teen构成，读双重音。
one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve;
thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen.
2.20-90整十位数多是基数词后加-ty构成。
twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, ninety.
3.“几十几”由“十位数词+个位数词”构成。（中间有连字符-）
twenty-one, thirty-two, forty-three, fifty-four等。
4.三位数基数词构成方法：百位数+and+十位数-个位数。
128 – one hundred and twenty-eight
5.三位数以上的数字构成方法：从个位数往左数，每三位数为一数段，可用逗号分开；第一逗号前的数位千位(thousand),第二逗号前的数位百万位(million),第三逗号前的数位十亿位(billion，美国读法 / thousand million，英国读法).
7,235,608,041-seven billion, two hundred and thirty-five million, six hundred and eight thousand, and forty-one
6.hundred,thousand,million,billion表示具体数目时（数词），无复数；但表示不确定数量时（名词），可用“复数+of”结构，，并且可用some, several, many等来修饰，表示“多”的概念。
300人-three hundred people 成百上千人-hundreds of people
thousands of （成千上万） millions of （成百万计的）billions of (数以几十亿计的)
many hundreds of people
基数词的读法：
从左往右（从高位向低位）识读，每三个数段为一个单位（加数段名称），以“xxx百xxx十几（+数段名称）”形式进行识读；在十位前面（如十位为零，在个位前面）加连词and。
7,235,608,041-seven billion, two hundred and thirty-five million, six hundred and eight thousand, and
forty-one
B.序数词的构成：
1.第一至第三有各自独特的形式：first, second, third.
2.第四至第十九都是在基数词的基础上加-th,注意：eighth, ninth, fifth, twelfth.
3.第二十至第九十都将基数词词尾的y改为i,再加-eth构成：ninetieth等。
4.十位以上的基数词变为序数词时，把个位数变为序数词即可，十位不变。
第一百（千，百万---）等都是在基数词后面加-th构成。
第二十三 – twenty-third;第五十九 – fifty-ninth; 第一百零二 – one hundred and second
5.序数词的缩写形式是由阿拉伯数字后加上序数词的最后两个字母构成： 1 st, 22 nd, 73 rd, 85 th, 等等。
四．数词的句法功能：
在句中与形容词、不定代词功能相似，可作主、宾、表、定或同位语。
例：1.Two of us are from China. The tenth of September is Teachers’ Day.(主)
2.Can you give me three I like the first. (宾)
3.He is twelve years old. He is always the first to come to school. (表)
4.There are forty-six students in our class. The fifth man is his father. (定)
5.We three will go there. People say that by the year2010,it may be--(同)
五．数词的常见用法：
1．表示四则运算：3+8=11 Three plus/and eight is eleven.
6-3= How much is six minus three
5×2=10 Five times two is ten./Multiply five by two is ten.
24÷4=6 Twenty-four divided by four is six. (谓语用单数)
2. 表示编号：编号一般用基数词放在名词之后，用阿拉伯数字。
Lesson 9 (= the ninth lesson) ; Class1,Grade9; in Room 318; No.2 Middle School ;at 156 Xinhua Road.等。
3.表示世纪、年代：
A.（在）21 世纪：in the 21st century B.（在）50年代：in the fifties
C.（在）20世纪80年代：in 1980s或in 1980’s (nineteen eighties)
D.（在）2005年：in 2005 (two thousand and five)
4.表示日期：用序数词或阿拉伯数字，但读日时仍须用序数词表达，前加the.
例：写法：September 1st,1985 读法：September the first, nineteen eighty-five
或：1 September,1985 the first of September, nineteen eighty-five
注意：1.在“年”“月”前用in；在“月---日”或“年---月---日”前用on.
2.年代读法：例：1949 – nineteen forty – nine (前后两个数字各分开读)
5.表示时刻：（表示时刻的读法有两种）
A.顺读法：与汉语顺序一样，第一基数词表“时点”，第二基数词表“分钟”
如果表正点，基数词后加o’clock，口语中可省略。
例：1)7：00 at seven (o’clock) 2) 6:05 six o five 3)3:15 three fifteen
4)12:30 twelve thirty 5)9:42 nine forty-two 6)10:45 ten forty-five
B.倒读法：与汉语顺序不同。有两种读法：
1．表“几点几分”，分钟不超过30，用“分钟数+past+时点”。
例：1)8:10–ten past eight2)9:15–a quarter past nine3) 10:30-half past ten
2．表“几点几分”，分钟超过30，用“(60-分钟数)+to+(下一个)时点”
例：1)7:35-twenty-five to eight 2) 1:45-a quarter to two (注意：在时刻前用介词at.)
6.表示岁数： 1)She is a girl of sixteen years old.(=a 16-year-old girl)
2)Children can go to school at (the age of) eight.
3)The famous writer died in his fifties.(五十多岁)
7.分数、小数、百分数的表达法：
A.分数：分子（前）用基数词，分母（后）用序数词；当分子大于1时，分母（序数词）用复数形
式，连字符可有可无。
例：1)1/4–one/a fourth//a/one quarter 2) 1/2 – a/one half 3)3/5 – three-fifths ;
4)3/4 – three fourths/quarters 5)1·1/2 – one and a half
例：1.半个小时 half an hour 2.一个半小时one hour and a half / one and a half hours
B.小数：小数点用point，零要读zero，小数点前用基数词，小数点后的数字用基数词逐个表示。
例：1)0.5 – zero point five 2)3.1415926 – three point one four one five------
C.百分数：百分比用percent或per cent.百分数由“基数词+percent”构成。
例：1)5% - five percent/per cent 2)0.6% -zero point six percent 3)100% - one hundred percent
注意：“百分数 +of + 名词”作主语时，谓语动词的单复数形式由of后面的名词决定，即：of 后面
是名词复数时，谓语动词用复数形式；of后面是单数可数名词或不可数名词时，谓语动词用
单数形式。
例：80 percent of the books are very interesting.
30 percent / 30% of the apple has gone bad. 50 percent / 50% of the milk has been drunk.
8.倍数的表示：
A.倍数+as+形(副)词原级+as： I have three times as many books as you.
B.倍数+形(副)词比较级+than：Our classroom is three times larger than theirs.
C.倍数+the size of ---： The classroom is twice the size of ours.
注意：1.表示三及以上倍数用times，表示两倍用twice或double.
2.表示增加多少倍可用百分比，表示净增数。
例：The value of the house is 200% greater than it was in 1990.
注意：1.基数词常表示数量；序数词常表示顺序，与the连用，但是：1）如有其它限定词，the自然不用 2）与不定冠词a/an连用时，不表示顺序，而是“又一个”(=another)的意思 (不会用到first)
例：1)I have bought one pen, but I want a second one.
2)Here are two boxes, do you need a third one
3)Don’t drop it, let’s try it a second time.
2.在复合形容词(基数词-单数名词)中，整体视为一个形容词(=复数名词所有格)
例：1) a two-month holiday = two months’ holiday
2)an eight-year-old boy = a boy of eight years old
3)a five-hundred-word letter = a letter of five hundred words
4)a 12-foot-deep well =a well that is 12 feet deep直接引语和间接引语
一．概念理解：直接引用别人所说的话叫直接引语；用自己的话转述别人的话叫间接引语。
二．直接引语变为间接引语的特点：
①不用逗号/冒号/感叹号/引号 ②要考虑人称和时态变化 ③要考虑时间、地点状语和指示代词变化.
三．变化特点
a. 若主句谓语动词是现在时，直接引语变成间接引语不用调整时态。
若主句谓语动词是过去时，直接引语变成间接引语要调整时态。列表如下：
直接引语 间接引语
一般现在时 一般过去时
现在进行时 过去进行时
现在完成时 过去完成时
一般将来时 过去将来时
一般过去时 过去完成时
过去将来时 不 变
过去进行时 不 变
过去完成时 不 变
将来进行时 过去将来进行时
将来完成时 过去将来完成时
注意：当直接引语表示客观真理时，变为间接引语时态不变。
b. 指示代词、时间状语和动词也要作调整。
直接引语 间接引语
指示代词 this / these that / those
时间状语 now today tonightthis weekyesterdaythe day before yesterdaylast weekago three days ago tomorrow the day after tomorrow next week so far in two days then that day that night that week the day before two days before the week before before three days beforethe next / following daytwo days later the next / following week by then after two days
地点状语 Here there
方向性动词 come / bring go / take
情态动词 can, may, must could, might, had to
注意：即时转述，从句中的时间、地点不用变化；过后转述，而且时间、地点都发生了变化，间接引语中的时间和地点都要随之变化。
c. 直接引语变为间接引语的注意事项（基本规则同于宾语从句部分）：
1．陈述句变为间接引语时，宾语从句的引导词用that（可省略）引导。注意人称和时态的变化，语序不变。（引述动词常为say, tell等不含疑问意义的动词）
例：1. “The sun rises in the east.” She told us.
She told us that the sun rises in the east.
2. She said, “I will leave a message on this desk.”
She said that she would leave a message on that desk.
感叹句变为间接引语时，宾语从句的引导词仍然用what或how引导。注意人称和时态的变化，语
序不变；也可使用that引导的宾语从句（引述动词常为say, tell, cry, shout等不含疑问意义的动词）
例：We said, “What a clever monkey it is!”
We said what a clever monkey it was. / We said that it was a clever monkey.
2．一般疑问句变为间接引语时，先用引导词if或whether连接，后面接陈述语序，要注意人称和时态变化。（引述动词常为ask等含疑问意义的动词或句子）
例：1. “Did she make up her mind to eat the fruit at last ” Could you tell me---
Could you tell me if/whether she made up her mind to eat the fruit at last
2. “Have you ever been to Shanghai ” Lucy asked me.
Lucy asked me if/whether I had ever been to Shanghai.
否定的一般疑问句变为间接引语时，用引导词whether--- or not连接，后面接陈述语序，要注意
人称和时态变化。（引述动词常为ask等含疑问意义的动词或句子）
例：He said, “Don’t you know he is a famous singer ”
He asked us whether we knew he was a famous singer.
选择疑问句变为间接引语时，用whether --- or---连接，后面接陈述语序，要注意人称和时态变化。
（引述动词常为ask等含疑问意义的动词或句子）
例：The boy asked, “ Are you listening to music or watching TV now ”
The boy asked me whether I was listening to music or watching TV then.
反义疑问句变为间接引语时，用whether --- or not连接后面接陈述语序，要注意人称和时态变化。
（引述动词常为ask等含疑问意义的动词或句子）
例：”You have made such a mistake, haven’t you ” he cried.
He cried whether I had made such a mistake or not.
3．特殊疑问句变为间接引语时，用自身的特殊疑问词引导，后面接陈述语序，要注意人称和时态变化
（引述动词常为ask等含疑问意义的动词或句子）
例：1. “Where were you yesterday ” LiLei asked me.
LiLei asked me where I had been the day before.
2. “What is wrong with these boys now ” Miss Zhao wondered.
Miss Zhao wondered what was wrong with those boys then.
4．祈使句变为不定式作宾语补足语，用ask/tell/order sb. (not) to do sth.句型转换（引述动词变换）。
例：1. “Open the windows, please, XiaoMing!” said LiLei.
LiLei asked XiaoMing to open the windows. (含有please等语气委婉客气用ask)
2. “Stop talking,”he said to all of us.
He told all of us to stop talking. (语气平缓、一般的用tell)
3. “Do not move away!” the policeman said to the thief.
The policeman ordered the thief not to move away.(语气严厉、强硬的用order)
※小结：①直接引语和间接引语互相转换时，注意人称代词、时态、从句语序、指示代词、时间状语、地点状语、
动词方面的转换。（人称变化规律“一从主，二从宾，三不变”）
②根据表达的情境和语气，注意引述动词的变化（祈使句部分）
③没有间接宾语（人）时，可以根据具体内容加一个间接宾语如me, him或us等。状语从句(The Adverbial Clause)
一．概念理解：在整个复合句中起状语作用，用来修饰主句中的谓语动词、形容词或副词，有时用来修饰整个句子。状语从句可位于主句前(其后常用逗号与主句隔开)或主句后(其前常不用逗号与主句隔开)；有的放在主句前后皆宜。 状语从句通常由一个连接词或一个起连接词作用的短语引导，这种连接词被称之为从属连词(有时也不需连词)
二．状语从句根据用途可分为如下九大类：
A.时间状语从句：常由when, while, as, since, after, before, until, till, as soon as等连词引导。
例：1. I’ll tell him about it when he comes back.
2. He didn’t go to bed last night until his father came back.
3. Please call me as soon as you get there.
4. He run off before I could stop him.(我还没来得及拦他，他就逃跑了，before后常含情态动词)
**注意事项：
1．主句是将来时(或含情态动词的现在时，或主句是祈使句)，从句常用现在时来代替将来时(主将从现)。
例：1. After she finishes her homework, she can watch TV for an hour.
2. He won’t leave the school until he finds the library book.
3. Don’t get off the bus until it has stopped.
2．在由until / till 引导的时间状语从句中，当主句的谓语动词表达否定义时，谓语动词是瞬间性动词。
例：He didn’t come back until it was too late.
当主句的谓语动词表达肯定义时，谓语动词是延续性动词。
例：He waited until it was too late.
3．since引导的从句，主句常用现在完成时，从句则用一般过去时。
例：1.He has visited a lot of places since he came to China.
2. It is many years since World War Two was over.
4．as, when与while
as : A.“当------时候”，(=when) As she was walking in the park, she heard a cry for help.
B. “一边---，一边---”表同步发生或进行。The girls danced as they sang. They talked as they walked.
when “当------时候”，引导时间状语从句时，即可指“时间点”也可指“时间段”，相应的从句中谓语动词须为“终止性的”或“持续性的”。
I was watching TV when he came into my house. (终止性动词)
I fell down on the ice when I was skating quickly. (持续性动词) (when=while)
注意：when 可用于主句动作正在进行的过程中(进行时)，从句动作突然发生(一般时)。
I was walking in the park when it began to rain, I got wet soon.(=just at that moment)
while “当---时候”，只指“时间段”，不指“时间点”，(while= dring the time--)表示主句的行为在从句行为过程之中发生，所以从句中只能用持续性动词或状态动词，并且持续性动词常用进行时态。
Someone knocked at the door while I was cooking. ( while = when )
I read the newspaper while I waited for the bus / while waiting for the bus.
提示：用while的句子同样都可以用when；而用when的句子不一定都可以用while.
B.条件状语从句：常由连词if, unless(如果不=if not), so long as(只要), so far as(就------)等引导。
例：1. We’ll go to the park if it doesn’t rain.= We’ll go to the park unless it rains.
2. We can surely overcome these difficulties so long as we are closely united.
3. If you don’t hurry, you’ll be late.(=Hurry up, or you’ll be late.)
4. If you get up early, you’ll catch the bus.(=Get up early, and you’ll catch the bus)
5. He said that he would visit the Great Wall if he was free.
**注意事项：条件状语从句和时间状语从句一样，主句与从句时态保持一致。当主句是将来时(或含情态动词的现在时，或主句是祈使句)，从句常用一般时来代替将来时(即“主将从现”)。
C.地点状语从句：常由where, wherever(无论哪里)引导.。
例：1. We’ll go where we are most needed. 2. Wherever he goes, he always takes photos.
3. You may go where you like. 4. Wherever you work, you must always work hard.
D.原因状语从句：常由because, since, as, now (that) (既然，由于)等引导。
例：1. Now (that) I am well again, I can go on with my work.
2. She didn’t come to school yesterday because she was ill.
3. Since we are all here, let’s begin.
4. As he didn’t know the answer, he didn’t raise his hand.
**注意事项：
1．because强调的是直接原因或原因构成句子的最主要部分，常用以回答why问句。
2．since或as表示“原因”已为人们所知，或者原因不如句子的其它部分重要时使用。
since(既然)比as 稍正式些，而且引导的从句一般放在主句之前。
3．for引导分句表补充说明，且要用在主句后，并用逗号与主句隔开或放在括号中(连接的是并列句)
例：1.-Why were you late this morning –I was late because I got up late.
2. Since you are much better, you can go out and do a little sport.
3. As it rained heavily, we had to stop the match.
4. The supermarket looks rather new, for it has just opened.
**注意：because与so在表达是不能同时使用。
E.方式状语从句：表示动作的方式。常由as(如同), as if/ though(好像)等引导，多置于主句之后。
例：1. You should write as he does. 2. You’d better do it as your mother did.
3. They play the game as Mr. Zhang tells them. 4. You answered as if you did not know the rule.
5. She closed her eyes as though she was tired. 6. It looks as if it is going to rain.
7. He looks as if he was from the country. (虚拟语气句)
F.比较状语从句：常由连词than, as --- as, not as / so--- as等引导。
例：1. It is colder today than it was yesterday. 2. He jumps as high as you (do).
3. He doesn’t work as/so hard as Jim (does). 4. I don’t have as/so many books as Kate (does).
5. The population of China is larger than that of Japan.
**注意事项：1．在比较状语从句中，than 和as后面的谓语部分常省略。
2．as---as, not as/so --- as引导的从句中，中间用形容词或副词的原级。
G.目的状语从句：常由连词that, so that, in order that(为了), in case(以防)等引导，从句中常含情态动词
can, could, be able to, will, would, may, might等。
例：1. They study hard so that they can catch up with their classmates.
2. He sent the letter by air mail in order that (so that) it might reach them in time.
**注意事项：
1．so that与in order that 一般可互换，但后者更正式；in order that 引导的从句可位于主句前，而so that引导的从句必须放在主句后。
2．当主、从句主语一致时，从句通常可改成一个由in order to do或so as to do(不定式短语)形式，使主从复合句变成一个简单句(不定式作目的状语)。
例：They both worked day and night in order that(so that) they could pay off their debt.
= They both worked day and night in order(so as) to pay off their debt.
另外in order to可置于句首，而so as to 则不能。
例：In order to get to school on time, he got up very early.
Yesterday I got up early in order not to be late for the exam.
H.让步状语从句：常由连词although, though, even though, even if(即使)，whatever(特殊疑问词+ever形
式),no matter how(no matter+特殊疑问词)等引导。
例：1. Although/Though they were tired, (yet) they went on working.
2. Even if you agree, I’ll still refuse his suggestion.
3. Whatever she will do, I will be on her side.
4. No matter how hard our life is, we’ll always be successful.
** 注意事项：
1．although/ though不能与but 同时使用；但二者可与yet, still连用.
Though he was ill, he still went on working.
2．although与though引导的让步状语从句可以进行句式转换，即把从句中的形容词、名词或副词前置，然后把although/though改为as；如果名词是可数名词的单数形式，不能加不定冠词a /an。
例：1. Though he works hard, he makes little progress. ->Hard as he works, he makes little progress.
2. Though he is very good, he will never be the top. -> Good as he is, he will never be the top.
3. Though she is a girl, she can do it. ->Girl as she is, she can do it.
4. Though he is very late, Mother will wait for him to have dinner together.
->However late he is, Mother will wait for him to have dinner together.
No matter how late he is, Mother will wait for him to have dinner together.
I. 结果状语从句：常由that, so---that, such---that, so that (结果)等引导。
例：1. Ayers Rock is so difficult to reach that few people would like to climb it.
2. It is such an interesting book that I have read it many times.
3. He spent all his money, so (that) he hardly got back home.
**注意事项：
1．so that既可引导目的状语从句，也可引导结果状语从句。区别是：
a. 意思不同：表达“为了，以便”的含义时， 属于目的状语从句。
表达“结果，因此，以至于”的含义时，属于结果状语从句。
b. 目的状语从句直接跟在主句后； 而结果状语从句虽然跟在主句后，但须与主句用逗号隔开。
c. 当从句谓语有情态动词can, could, may, might, will, would, be able to等时，常为目的状语从句；当
从句中没有情态动词且谓语动词是一般现在/过去时或现在完成时等时态时，常为结果状语从句。
例：1. Speak louder so that all of us can hear you. (目的)
It rained hard yesterday, so that she had to stay at home. (结果)
so---that such---that
1 so+ 形容词/副词 + that such + a/an + 形容词 + 单数可数名词 + that
2 so + many(多)/few(少) +复数名词 + that such + 形容词 + 复数名词 + that
3 so + much(多)/little(少)+不可数名词+ that such + 形容词 + 不可数名词 + that
4 so+形容词 + a/an + 单数可数名词+that
2．so---that和such--- that都可以引
导结果状语从句，而且意思相同，但是在结构上是不同的。
**注意事项：
1．中间是形容词时，或中间是“形容词(many/much/few/little)+名词”时，只能用so---that结构,除此之外都用such---that结构。
2．如果是“形容词+单数名词”，两种结构都行，但要注意冠词a / an的位置。
例：This is such an interesting story that I have read it many times.
=This is so interesting a story that I have read it many times.
3．so---that(如此------以致于------) so是副词，常修饰形容词或副词；
such---that(如此的------以致------) such是形容词，常修饰含限定词的短语名词。
判断方法：如果so前是be, become, feel等连系动词，so---that中间一般用形容词；如果so前是行为动词，so---that中间一般用副词。
例：1. She was so happy that she danced. 2. He ran so fast that I couldn’t catch up with him.
4．在某些情况下，so---that结构可转换成too---to或enough to结构的简单句式。
A.当that从句是否定句时：
a).如从句与主句主语相同，可转换为too---to do结构：
例：He’s so young that he can’t go to school. ->He’s too young to go to school.
b).如从句与主句主语不同，可转换为too---for sb. to do结构：
例：The box is so heavy that he can’t lift it. ->The box is too heavy for him to lift.
B.当that从句是肯定句时：
a) 如从句与主句主语相同，可转换为---enough to结构：
例：Tom ran so fast that he caught up with us. ->Tom ran fast enough to catch up with us.
b).如从句与主句主语不同，可转换为 ---enough for sb. to do结构：
例：The box is so light that the child can lift it. ->The box is light enough for the child to lift.
**注意：for后代词用宾格，不定式后的宾语(如为指代主句的主语时)须省略。**
5．当that从句为否定句式时：
A.从句与主句主语相同时，可变为---enough to do的否定结构；(enough前要用其相应的反义词)
例：This boy is so young that he can’t go to school.
=This boy is not old enough to go to school. / This boy is too young to go to school.
B. 从句与主句主语不同时，可变为---enough for sb. to do的否定结构：
例：This box is so heavy that I can’t move it away.
=This box isn’t light enough for me to move away. / This box is too heavy for me to move away.
**注意：for后代词用宾格，不定式后的宾语(如为指代主句的主语时)须省略。**冠词(Article)
一．冠词是一种虚词，不单独担任句子成分，常与名词连用，用来修饰名词并帮助说明名词的含义。英语中用art.表示。
二．冠词的种类：定冠词the：辅音因素开头的词前读| |；元音因素开头的词前读| i:|。
不定冠词：a辅音因素开头的词前；an元音因素开头的词前。
三．冠词的用法
A.不定冠词的用法：
1．第一次提到的某人或物： I have a new book. It’s very interesting.
2．表人或物的某一种类(泛指)：Can an American talk to a European in English
An elephant is stronger than a horse.
3．指某人/物，但不具体说明： A boy is waiting for you at the school gate.
A Mr White called to see you when you were out. (a = a certain)
4．表“一”数量，但不如one 强烈：We’re going to have an English party tomorrow.
5．表“每个”义，相当于every的作用：The train runs 60 kilometres an hour.
They go to visit the Great Wall twice a year.
6．月、星期、晚上等前有修饰定语时：She went out on a windy morning.
7．用于某些固定短语中： a few, a little, a lot of, a number of, a great deal of, a great many, in a hurry,
in a ward, have a try, half an hour, twice a week 等。
注意：an hour and a half = one and a half hours
8．在such a/an, quite a/an, rather a/an, so+adj.+a /an + n. 等结构中：
She is such a teacher. It is so important a meeting that I don’t want to miss it.
9．what引导的感叹句，用于单数可数名词或集体名词前：
What an honest boy he is! What a happy family it is!
10．抽象/物质名词具体化(从不可数名词形式变为可数名词形式)：
What a wonderful time we had together!(一段时光)
What a heavy snow/rain/a strong wind it is!(一场雪/雨/风)
B.定冠词的用法：
1．第二次提到的人或物： I have a book. The book is very interesting.
2．指双方都知道的人或物： Did you go to see the film yesterday
3．接单数名词，表人或物的某一种类： The elephant is much bigger than the horse.
4．用在世界上独一无二的事物(天体)前： The earth travels around the sun.
* 行星前不用the: Mars (火星). Venus (金星)
5．用在序数词或形容词最高级及only, very, same等词前：
The first house is the most beautiful one in our school. That’s the very thing I’ve been looking for.
** 不定冠词a/an+序数词(first除外) = another(强调反复性，不表顺序)
Don’t give it up. Let’s try it a second time.
** 不定冠词a/an+形容词最高级= very
The telephone is a most useful invention.
** 用在比较级前表两者中“比较---的那个”(常用于of结构)：
The older of the two is my brother.(*不能用elder)
6．当一名词被一短语或从句修饰时(相当于特指)：
The woman in red is my aunt. This is the letter I’ve just received.
7．用在表示方向的名词前：
Shanghai lies in the east of China. The sun rises in the east and it sets in the west.
8．用在由普通名词构成的专有名词前：
the Great Wall, the Yellow River, the West Lake, the Summer Palace, the People’s Republic of
China, the People’s Daily
9．在江、河、湖、海，海湾等专有名词前 (单个湖不用the，多个湖用the)：
the Changjiang River, the Pacific Ocean, the West Lake;
Lake Erie (伊利湖), The Great Lakes (五大湖)
10．用在名词化的形容词/分词前表一类人或物：
The young should speak to the old / aged politely.
The rich used to look down upon the poor.
The English like talking about the weather when they meet each other.
11．用在乐器前： Can you play the piano / violin
12．用在姓氏复数前表夫妇或一家人(视为复数)：The Turners are having their dinner when I arrived.
13．用在“the+比较级，the+比较级”句型中(越------越------)(平行递进结构)：
The more, the better.
The busier he is, the happier he feels.
The harder he studies, the more knowledge he’ll get.
14．用在身体部位前(不用物主代词)：
She led the boy by the hand. He hit me in the face/on the shoulder. She caught me by the arm.
15．用在世纪年代前：in / during the 1990s
16．用在一些习惯短语中：
in the morning, in the day, on the left, in the sky, all the time, in the dark, in the middle of, in the end, in the same way,in the habit of(养成---习惯)
C.不用冠词的情况：
1．专有名词和不可数名词(物质/抽象名词)：
Beijing, Mr.Brown, music, milk, space, thought,rain, snow,wind, Flight No.747等
What kind of food do you like best Failure is the mother of success.
**抽象/物质名词具体化(可从不可数名词变为可数名词)
What a terrible cough!
I love history because it gives us a knowledge of the past event.
China has a population of 1.3 billion.
2．复数名词表一类人或事物时：Bikes are very useful in China.
3．名此前已有定语时： Come this way. This is my first time to visit Mount Tai.
4．在星期、月份、季节、节日前：It’s very cold in winter. It happened in May, 2006.
He arrived on Monday We celebrate National Day.
**民族节日前用定冠词：the Spring Festival, the Mid-autumn Day, the Dragon-Boat Day
**如季节、月份、星期后带有限定语时，前面加定冠词：
in the autumn of 1989, on the Sunday when he was ill
5．在称呼语、职位、头衔前： Uncle Wang, Mr. Zhang, Doctor Bai, President Bush
**不清楚具体身份的人前可用冠词：A Mr. Brown is calling the phone, sir.
6．在三餐、学科、球类、棋类前：have lunch, study physics, play football, play chess
**上述名词前如有修饰词时须加冠词：I had a quick supper then I hurried to the cinema.
7．在表通过(交通等)手段的介词短语或某些固定词组中：
by bus(plane, air, ship, water, bike), on foot, on time, in time, at home, at night, at breakfast, in bed, go to school, turn writer, in town, in space, in use(流通), in times(应时)
8．当形容词的最高级作表语且又不表进行比较时：
She feels happiest when she is working for others. Science and technology are most important.
9．两个相对或相同的名词并列使用时：
sun and moon, father and son, day and night, from beginning to end, face to face, side by side,
hand in hand, neck and neck
10．指同一人/物的第二名词前：
The singer and dancer is coming. (那位歌手兼舞蹈家将要来了)
注意：The singer and the dancer are coming. (歌手和舞蹈家将要来了)
*** D.习惯用语中使用定冠词和不用冠词的辨析与差异：
1.in front of(整体的前面) – in the front of(内部的前部)
2.at table(就餐) – at the table(在桌旁)
3.on earth(地球上/究竟，到底) – on the earth(在地球上)
4.next week(下周：将来) – the next week(下一周：常指过去)
5.take place(发生) – take the place of(代替)
6.go to school(上学) –go to the school(去学校)
7.go to church(去作礼拜) – go to the church(去教堂)
8.in public(当众=in front of people) – in the public(在公共场所)
9.in hospital(住院) – in the hospital(在医院里)
10.in bed(躺着/卧床) – in the bed(在床上)
11.five of us(部分) – the five of us(全体)
一般而论,有the强调地方,没有the是强调与这个地方有关的事件.
切莫小看定冠词the
在英语中，你可别小看定冠词the，它的用法真可谓变化无穷，稍一疏忽，便会出错。下面的实例说明 ，有无定冠词the，意义上竟会有天壤之别。所以在教学中要慎之又慎，决不可掉以轻心而误人子弟。例子是不 胜枚举的，下面仅举一些，以此引起同行们的重视。
1.behind time 过了时刻，迟了；behind the time 落在时代后面，不合时
The train is ten minutes behind time. 火车晚点十分钟。
Such books are behind the times. 这种书落后于时代了。
2. by day 在白天 ；by the day 计日，论日，按日计
They don’t work by day but by night. 他们白天不工作，晚上工作。
The bank calculates the interest on bills by the day.银行按日计算帐息。
3. by hand 手工做的；by the hand 搀着（手）
Was this tablecloth made by hand 这块桌台布是用手工做的吗？
He took his grandmother by the hand when they crossed the street. 过马路时，他搀着他祖母（的手）。
4. by sea 由海路；by the sea 在海岸上，在海滨
Marco Polo came to China by land and returned to Italy by sea.马可·波罗由陆路来中国，由海路返回意大利。
My friend spent his holiday in a rest home by the sea. 我朋友在海滨一个招待所度假。
5. give battle 开战；give the battle 打败仗
They decided to give battle to the enemies. 他们决定向敌人开战。
They gave the battle in the end. 他们最后打了败仗。
6. go to sea 去当水手；go to the sea 出海
The boy wanted to go to sea. 这男孩想当水手。
The fisherman went to the sea early in the morning. 这渔夫一大早就出海去了。
7. go to war 交战；go to the war 参军
England went to war with Germany in 1939. 1939年英国和德国交战。
The two brothers went to the war. 两兄弟从军去了。
8. in case of 如果，万一；in the case of 就……来说，至于
You can come to our hospital in case of illness. 你如果有病，可以到我们医院来。
In the case of physical change,no new substance is formed. 就物理变化来说，没有新的物质产生 。
9. in charge of 负责，主管（表示主动）；in the charge of 由……负责，被……主管（表示被动）
Dr Bethune was in charge of the operation. 白求恩大夫负责这次手术。
This kindergarten is in the charge of a young girl. 这个幼儿园由一个年轻的姑娘负责。
10.in course of 正在……中；in the course of 在……的过程中
An international meeting is in course of preparation. 正在筹备一次国际会议。
New arts have been born in the course of the history of man.在人类历史发展过程中，新的艺术不断诞生。
11. in future 从今以后；in the future 在将来
In future meetings will start ten minutes earlier. 从今以后会议要提前十分钟开始。
Today,107 chemical elements have been discovered and more will be discovered in the future.
12. in person 亲自，外貌上；in the person 以……资格，代表
I can’t go in person ,but I’m sending my secretary. 我不能亲自去了，但是我派我的秘书去。
She looks younger in person than on the screen. 她看上去比她在银幕上的形象更年轻。
He spoke in the person of Xinhua News Agency. 他代表新华社讲话。
13. in place of 代替；in the place of 在……的地方
We use chopsticks in place of knives and forks. 我们用筷子代替刀叉。
The traffic accident happened in the place of Lorraine. 交通事故发生在洛林这个地方。
14. in possession of 占有，拥有（表示主动）；in the possession of 被（为了）…占有（所用）（表被动）
She was found in possession of dangerous drugs. 有人发现她拥有危险药品。
That island was in the possession of that country late in the sixteenth century. 这个岛屿1 6世纪末被那个国家占有。
15. in red 身穿红衣服；in the red 亏损，有赤字
The girl in red is our professor’s daughter. 那个身穿红衣服的姑娘是我们教授的女儿。
The company was in the red . 这家公司出现了赤字。
16. in secret 暗地里，秘密地；in the secret. 知道内情，参与秘密
She wept in secret. 她暗暗哭泣。
She wrote to the newspaper in secret. 她秘密给报社写了信。
I know a man who is in the secret. 我认识一个了解内情的人。
17.in sight of 看得见，在看得见……的地方；in the sight of 在……看来，从……观点来看
Are we in sight of land yet 现在看得见陆地了吗？
He should be sentenced to death in the sight of law. 从法律角度来看，他该被判处死刑。
18. in view of 鉴于，由于；in the view of 按……的意见
In view of the circumstances,we should give up the plan. 考虑到情况的变化，我们应该放弃这项计划。
In the view of Marxist-Leninist,the people are the makers of history. 马列主义者认为人民是历史的创造者。
19.keep house 管理家务；keep the house 守在家里
Richard’s wife,Harriet.had been ill in bed for five years,and so his sister Caroline kept house.
Mr Smith had to keep the house that night.
20.on fire 着火；on the fire 在考虑中，在准备中
The enemy could not but abandon the warship on fire. 敌人只好放弃着火的战舰。
The young writer has a new novel on the fire. 这位年轻的作家正打算写一部新小说。
21. out of question 不成问题，无疑的；out of the question 不可能
If you persist,your success is out of question. 如果你坚持下去，成功是无疑的。
It is out of the question for anyone to build a castle in the air. 任何人想建立空中楼阁都是不可能的。
22. take air 传播，泄漏；take the air 出外，呼吸新鲜空气，兜风
The story has taken air. 这件事已经传开了。
At the door of the engine room,the engineer sat smoking a pipeand taking the air.
机械师 坐在机房门口，边抽烟斗边透一透空气。
23. take place 发生；take the place of 代替
Great changes have taken place in our country since 1978. 自从1978年以来我国已经发生了巨大的变化。
Electric trains have taken the place of steam trains in some places in China.
在中国，电气火车已经在有些地方取代了蒸气机火车。介词 (preposition)
一．概念理解：介词在句中表示某个名词或代词与其它词之间的关系。英语中常用prep.来表示。
二．句法功能：
A. 介词是虚词，不能单独充当句子的一个语法成分，一般用在名词、代词宾格或动名词的前面，与之
一起构成介词短语。介词短语可以在句子中充当一个语法成分，一般用作表语、主语或宾语的补足
语、定语或状语，表示时间、地点、方式、原因、伴随状态等。
例：1. Thanks to the doctor, the old man is in good health now. (表语)
2. He left the little boy at the hotel last night. (宾语补足语)
3. The girl in a white hat is my younger sister. (定语)
4. The teacher came in a hurry, with a book under his arm. (前者为方式状语，后者为伴随状语)
B. 介词也可与动词搭配构成短语动词 (亦称为动词短语)，还可以与表语形容词搭配成短语作谓语使用。
例：1. Dick looked for his book everywhere. 2. Are you interested in skating
三．介词种类：
1. 简单介词： about, above, across, after, against, along, around, as, at, before, behind, before, below, beside,
besides, between, beyond，but, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, like, minus, near, of, off, on,
past, plus, round, since, than, through, till, to, toward(s), under, unlike, until, up, with, worth 等。
2. 合成介词：inside, outside, into, onto, out of, upon, without, within, throughout 等。
3. 带 –ing形式介词：concerning（关于），considering（考虑到），excepting（除…之外），failing（如
没有…，如不到），following（在…之后，经过），including（包含，包括），regarding（关于）等。
4. 成语/短语介词：according to, ahead of, because of, by means of, except for, in front of, in place of, due to,
instead of, next to, together / along with, up to, in spite of, in addition to等。
四．介词短语的作用：
介词+名词/代词/动名词，形成介词短语，可作表语、补足语、定语或状语。
A. 表语
例：1. They look like tour guides. 2. The little girl is afraid of dogs.
B. 补足语
例：1. The farmers were helped with their rice harvest. (被动语态中，作主语补足语)
2. The farmer made the king out of the water. (主动语态中，作宾语补足语)
C. 定语（介词短语作定语一定后置）
例：1. The woman with three children is a famous singer.
2. The building next to the school looks very modern and luxurious.
D. 状语（修饰动词、形容词、副词或全句）
例：1. I shall meet you at the school gate on the morning of May 1st. (地点状语；时间状语)
2. To their surprise, they saw not locusts, but seagulls. (原因状语)
The tall man was wild with joy. Thank you for helping me a lot with my study.
3. Without the help of my teacher, I won’t pass the exam. (条件状语)
4. Can you work out the problems in different ways (方式状语)
5. The singer appeared with a crowd of guards around her. (伴随状语)
五．动词短语的作用：
介词和动词、形容词或名词结合形成动词短语，在句中作谓语。
A. 动词+介词：
laugh at, look at, arrive in / at, point at / to, shout at / to, take part in, do well in, join in, think about, worry about, talk about, look about/around, look for, wait for, pay for, look over, look after, hear of, think of, look out of, take care of, play with, agree with, talk with / to, go on with, catch up with, help --- with, get on/along --- with, look like, hear from, come from, stop --- from---, listen to, get to, agree to, move to, tie --- to ---, prefer--- to ---, fall behind, knock at / on 等。
B. be + 形容词 + 介词：
1. be careful (anxious, sure, worried, amazed, etc.) about
2. be good (angry, surprised, pleased, amazed, clever, quick) at
3. be famous (ready, anxious, known, hungry, necessary, sorry, responsible, late, short, etc.) for
4. be different (absent, safe, etc.) from
5. be successful (interested, expert, disappointed, experienced, etc.) in
6. be proud (worthy, sick, tired, afraid, short, fond, full, certain, sure, etc.) of
7. be similar (familiar, equal, used, married, good, nice, kind, etc.) to
8. be pleased (angry, busy, crowded, popular, satisfied, etc.) with
9. be famous (known, well-known, etc.) as
C. 名词 + 介词：
have a talk / word with, do business with, get into trouble with, an answer to, a key to, pay attention to, a talk on, the cause of, the reason for, make up an excuse for, a habit of, have some difficulties in, make great progress in,
六．固定短语
at the moment, at this time, at a time, at last, at once, at times, at first, at least, at most, at the bottom, by air, little by little, day after day, face to face, hand in hand, from time to time, the day before/yesterday, the day after tomorrow, for short, in fact, in turns, in need of, on time, in time, on the way to, by the way, in a way, on business, under discussion, out of control, out of breath, out of danger, out of work, on duty, on fire, in a hurry, on foot, on top of ---, on sale, in all, in danger, in fact, in order to, in other words, in the end, in the daytime, in turn, in addition to等等。
七．重点词汇辨析
A. 介词与介词短语：
1．in front of, in the front (of) 与at the front (of)
in front of在------(在某范围以外) 前面 There is a tree in front of the house.
in the front of 在------(在某范围以内) 前部There is a big desk in the front of the classroom.
at the front of 在------前部，与in the front of同义 at强调“前部的某一点” in强调在…范围的前部
There is a man boating at the front of the boat.
2．near, close 与by
near 意思较含糊，有时表相当一段距离。close表在可接触范围内。by比near更近。
Don’t go near (to) the edge of the cliff(山崖). He sits close to me. She’s standing by the window.
3．in the east of --- 在------的东部 （范围内） Shanghai is in the east of China.
on the east of --- 在------的东面 （范围外但接壤） Shandong lies on the east of Hebei.
to the east of --- 在------的东面（范围外且有相隔地带）Japan is to the east of China.
4．after与behind
二者都可以作介词，表时间和地点。
A. 在表时间上，after意为“在某个特定时间或一段时间后”；而behind指“迟于一定的时间”，如与the times 连用，则指落后于时代。
They were very pleased (高兴) to meet after such a long separation (分别).
He came back after 5 o’clock in the afternoon.
The train is behind its time. (误点) He is behind the times.
B. 在表地点上，after指顺序的先后，behind指位置的先后。
He’ll come after you. He stood behind you.
5．across与through
across prep. / adv.介词/副词“横/穿过”(强调动作在物体表面横/跨过)
A little boy is running across the road before the heavy traffic. (介词)
China has built the Great Green Wall across the northern part of the country.
The river is so wide, can you swim across (副词)
The shoe store is across from the bookstore.(鞋店在书店的对面) (副词)
through prep. / adv. 介词/副词“穿过”(表示从事物的中间穿过)
A tunnel goes through a mountain. He is looking through the window. (介词)
The guard didn’t let us through. (副词)
6．over, on与above
over “在------的正上方”，强调垂直关系(反义词under)。There is a bridge over the river.
on“在------上面”，强调表面相接触(反义词under)。 The book is on the table.
above“在上方；但不一定是正上方”(反义词below)。The plane is flying above the clouds.
7．beyond 用法：
①prep. (表位置)在------的那边，远于He came from beyond the sea (海外).
(表时间)迟于------ He came here beyond nine o’clock.
(表范围、限度)超出 Some spacecraft have gone beyond the solar system.
(常用于问、否句)除------以外 I can’t tell you anything beyond what you know.
②adv. (在或向远处) Look beyond, you’ll get a good view from here.
8．between 与among
between 一般表示在两者之间；或者用来指在三者或多者之间一方与其他诸方各自每两者之间的关系。常以between--- and---短语形式出现。
There is a bridge between the two villages. I sit between LiLei and Jim.
We should build friendship between countries (各国之间).
among 往往强调在多者中(同类人或事物)，常与复数或集体名词连用，有时相当于of。
He is the tallest players among us. I live among the mountains. Among the blind the one-eyed man is king.
9．on/at the corner与in the corner
on the corner “在转角处”，美式英语的用法。at the corner，英式英语的用法。表示在某一地方或建筑物外面的转角处(外角)， 用at / on the corner of ---结构。
The shop is at / on the corner. We meet at /on the corner of Fifth Street.
in the corner (of) 指在某一地方或某建筑物内的转角处/角落里(内角)。
Martin is sitting at a table in the far corner.
She went to the telephone in the corner of the room.
10．of one’s own 与on one’s own
of one’s own “(属于)某人自己的” He showed us a photo of his own (可单用于句尾).
on one’s own = by oneself /alone“独自；靠某人自己” Can you finish the work on your own
11．except, except for (=apart from)与 besides
except prep.“除去，除掉”(把------除外)，后可接名、代、介短、不定式或从句。(前后同类)
All of us like the computer game except Jim. (Jim不喜欢；except = but)
He seldom goes anywhere except to his office. It has no effect (作用) except to make him angry.
except for “除------以外”，指排除某人或某事物的某种情况，其中for后的内容通常是句子所指内容的某方面，前后是整体与部分关系。(前后不同类，且前者包括后者)
Your picture is good except for some of the colors.
His composition is good, except for some spelling mistakes.
Except for one old lady, the bus was empty. The roads were clear except for a few cars.
besides prep. “除了------（还有---）”(把------包括在内)，后可接名、代、介短、不定式或从句。
All of us like the computer game besides Jim. (Jim也喜欢)
12．in spite of “尽管；除开”，引导让步状语(全句属简单句)，后常接名词、代词或v-ing形式作宾语。
She had a kind heart in spite of all her smartness (聪明).
In spite of the heavy rain, she went to the shop. In spite of a bad storm, the plane landed safely.
In spite of being lost, the little boy was not afraid. ※although/though 引导让步状语从句，后常接句子。
13．against 用法：
against prep. “与-----对抗；反对，相反，逆着，靠着，倚着”；可与行为动词或连系动词连用。
例：1. Which team will you play against We won our match against the team.
2. They marched forward against the strong wind. Who is against the proposal (提议)
He stood against the wall. The crazy man hit his head against the wall.
14. as 与like
like侧重A B两者间的比较,并不意味着A和B属于一类或完全相似.
He speak English like an Englishman.(=in a way an Englishman speaks English.) 表示有些相象
as则侧重于同一性,意味着A B两者属于同一类或完全相似.
He speaks English as an Englishman. ( = as well as an English.) 表示讲得一样好
15. . in the centre of 与in the middle of
in the centre of表“在…中心/中央”, 指圆或三维空间的中心点，并可用作比喻, 指事物或活动中心
in the middle of指空间、时间或过程意义上与两端等距离的中间部分。
Point O is in the centre of the circle.
Soon they were in the middle of the river.
16. 介词in, on, at的用法
短语:上/下午/晚上或特殊短语 in the morning / afternoon / evening (泛指),in one’s fifties (在某人50多岁), in the 1980s (20世纪80年代)
世纪/年/季节/月 in the 21st century, in 2008, in summer, in March
表示某一天 on Sunday; on October 1st; on Teachers’ Day; on a cold day
某天上/下午/晚上 on Monday evening; on a snowy morning; on the morning of July 3rd ( =in the morning on July 3rd )on the weekend, on weekends (美式)
某具体时刻 at 6:30; at lunch/break, at Christmas, at this time yesterday
部分固定短语 at night; at noon; at the weekend, at weekends (英式);at the same time, at the age of---, at the beginning / end of---
17. at the end of, by the end of与in the end
at the end of ---“在---的结尾/束时”(时间点)；“在---尽头/终点”(地点)。对应 at the beginning of(指时间)
At the end of the meeting, John came up and introduced himself to others.
They found the lost dog at the end of the street.
by the end of “到------末为止”(指时间延续的终点)
They will finish this building by the end of this month.(一般将来时)
He said that they had planted 5,000 trees by the end of last month.(过去完成时)
in the end “最后/结局是------”= at last / finally (指事情发展的顺序/最终结局)
First, he went to the park, then he went shopping, in the end he visited his parents.
18. on time与in time
on time “按时；准时”(有约定的时间) You should return the books to the library on time.
in time “及时”(表“来得及”，在事情发生前，无约定时间) The doctor got there in time to save the patient.
19．until 与till
until与till用法基本一致，常可互换。不同之处：until 常可用于书面语，而till常可用于口语；until可用于句首， 而till不能。（二者后接词或短语时，是介词；接句子时，是连词）
①二者用于肯定句时，主句谓语动词(所表示的动作或状态一直延续到二者所表示的时间为止)须用延续性动词。
She waited for his son to come until / till 11:30 pm.
I will stay here until / till he comes back. (主将从现)
②二者用于否定句时，主句谓语(所表动作一直没发生，直至二者所表示时间才发生)用瞬间/结束性动词。
She didn’t go to bed until / till 12 o’clock. I won’t leave until / till he comes back. (主将从现)
B. 动词短语
1. be famous for, be famous as 与be famous to
be famous for “因------而闻名”，for表原因。
He is famous for his kindness (善良). = He is famous for being kind to others.
be famous as “以作为------而闻名”，as后接表身份的名词。
He is famous as a writer, and he is famous for his science fictions (科幻小说).
be famous to “对于------来说闻名”，to后接受众/对象。
The old scientist is famous to us all, we all like going to his lessons.
2．be good at, be good to 与be good for
be good at “擅长/善于---” He is good at playing football.
be good to “对---(态度)好”He is good to his little brother.
be good for “对---有好处” Doing eye exercises is good for our health.
3. be good at 与do well in
be good at “擅长/善于---”，常表习惯性或长久性的行为能力。
do well in “在---方面做得好”，既可用于表示习惯/长久性的行为，也可表一次性的。
She is better than Lucy at swimming. （习惯性或长久性）
She does better than Lucy in swimming. （习惯性或长久性） He did very well in this exam. （一次性）
4. be born in / on / at + 地点
He was born in a rich family. The poor boy was born on the train. He was born at a small village.
be born in / on / at + 时间
He was born in 1994 / in June, 1994.(年月等) The twins were born on June 2 nd, 1994. (某天)
Were you born at 9:00 on June 1 st, 1994 (时刻)
5．be strict with sb. be strict in sth. 与 be strict with sb. in sth.
be strict with sb. 对某人严格 Miss Yang is very strict with her only child.
be strict in sth. 对某事严格 Miss Yang is very strict in her teaching.
be strict with sb. in sth.在某事情上对某人严格
Mr Black was very strict with his students in their homework.
6．die of --- 与die from---
die of --- 死于某种疾病，衰老，饥饿等“内因”。She died of cancer (癌症)/hunger (饥饿).
die from--- 死于外伤等“外因”。 The scientist died from overwork / a traffic accident.
7．talk to sb. 和某人交谈(侧重一方说，以防听) I often talk to Tom on the phone.
talk with sb. 和某人交谈(侧重两方都说) The teacher is talking with my father now.
talk about sb./sth.(with sb.)（和某人）谈论某人/事Lily and Lucy are talking about the film with their friends.
8．hear of, hear about与hear from
hear of只指听说到的某个对象 I have heard of this strange man, but I don’t know anything about him.
hear about指听说并了解对象细节内容I have heard a lot about this man, and I am eager to visit him.
hear from sb. 收到某人的来信 (后面只出现人而非信件) I hear from my pen friend once a month.
9. be get angry with sb.与be angry at / about sth.
be get angry with sb.(生某人的气) Don’t be angry with him. He’s only a kid.
be angry at / about sth. (因某事而生气) She is always angry at / about the small things.
10. be excited about (doing) sth.与be excited at / about sth
be excited about (doing) sth.对(做)某事感到兴奋
The fans are excited about the arrival of SHE. The children are excited about visiting the national stadium,
be excited at / about sth. 对某事感到兴奋 The World Cup is coming. Are you excited about it
注意：be exciting at是在某些方面激动 是一个抽象名词 be excited about关于什么激动 是一个事件
11．live on 与feed on
live on (doing) sth. (以------为食/靠------为生)
People from South China mainly live on rice. The old man lives on selling old things.
feed on (以------为食/ 给-------喂/吃------) Babies feed on milk. She feeds the cat on fish.
12. (be) full of---与be filled with
(be) full of“某容器装满某物”主语为容器物，表示的是一种状态。
I have a bag full of cartoons. (形容词短语作后置定语)
The bag is full of sweets. (= The bag is filled with sweets)
The bag was filled with sweets.(被动语态) = The bag was full of sweets.
pared with与compare to ---
compared to / with “与------相比”
Compared to other women, she was indeed very fortunate (幸运). (-ed 分词，表被动意)
The sales of the company has increased by 40% compared to / with last year.
compare --- with / to --- “把------与------相比”
Compare this book with that one, and find out the differences between them.
注意：compare to 是“把……比作”的意思。 We compare him to a little tiger.
14. be used in, be used by, be used to do sth., be used for与be used as
be used in 在-----方面/场合使用 English is widely used in different countries.
be used by 被-----(人)使用 Coal is used by people for getting / to get heat.
be used for (doing) sth. 被用于(做)某事 = be used to do sth.
Knives are used for cutting things. = Knives are used to cut things.
be used as--- 被作为------使用 English is used as a foreign language in many countries.
15. agree with sb. agree to --- 与agree on ---
agree with sb. 同意某人看法: Do you agree with me that fox-hunting is a cruel sport
agree to sth. 同意某事: They all agree to our study plan at once.
agree on sth. 就--取得一致意见: We agree on the price for the second-hand car. (协议)
16．pay attention to, look forward to, make a contribution to, prefer--- to ---, be used to---(习惯于), give
one’s life to---等结构中，to是介词，后面接动词时须接v-ing形式。
protect --- (from---) 保护------ (以防/免受------)，stop/keep/prevent sb. from doing 阻止某人做某事
ban sb. from (doing) sth. 禁止某人做某事
17．take a photo for 与take a photo of sth.
take a photo for sb. 替某人拍照 (照片上不是某人本人) Will you please take photos for me
take a photo of sb / sth. 给某人/事物拍照 (照片上是某人本人) May I take a photo of your family
18. be made of ----; be made from---; be made up of ---; be made in---; be made by---; be made into ---
be made of ---- (产品)由……材料制成 (看得出材料,物理变化) Those forks are made of steel.
be made from--- (产品)由……材料制成 (看不出材料,化学变化) A leaf of bread is made from wheat.
be made up of --- (整体)由……组成 (部分或成员) The Britain is made up of three parts.
be made in---出产于……(某地) I like the car made in Germany.
be made by---被------制成 (生产者) The TV set is made by workers.
be made into ---被制成------ (产品) Wood can be made into desks.
19. be familiar to 与be familiar with
(sth.) be familiar to (sb.) 为------所熟悉， 主语是物。 The city isn't familiar to me.
(sb.) be familiar with (sb. / sth.) 对------熟悉/通晓/精通， 主语是人。Are you familiar with this type of car
20. care for, care about与take care of
care for vt. 关心(喜欢,介意) I like him but I don't care for her.
care about 关心，介意，在乎 Don't you care about this country's future
take care of 照料v. 照看 You are not strong, so you’d better take care of your health.
21. be careful of/about 与be careful with
be careful + about/of+ 名词 “注意------的”；“小心，细心，注意”
She is careful about/of her food.= She is careful about/of what she eats.（后接wh-从句时，多省略介词）
be careful + with + 名词 “注意处理------”；“照顾，对------过细地” Be careful with the vase; it's valuable.
22. have a joke with sb. , make jokes about sth. 与play jokes on
have a joke with sb. 和某人开玩笑 She is having a joke with you.
make jokes about sth. 取笑 ------ Everyone made jokes about Mary’s shoes.
play jokes on 拿------开玩笑 We all played a joke on him on April Fool Day.
23. thanks to与because of
thanks to --- “幸亏，多亏；由于，因为”(常表带有感激的色彩)， 介词to后面跟名词、代词。
because of--- “由于，因为”(常不表带有感彩)， 介词of后面跟名词、代词、动名词或短语。
(1) Thanks to her help, I’ve made great progress in English.
(2) - Houston Rockets has won again. - That’s because of Yao Ming.
(3) Because of you, I missed the plane!
(4) Because of being scolded (责骂), the boy felt very disheartened (沮丧).
特殊短语：match---with---, translate---into, borrow sth. from sb., lend sth. to sb., write --- to, ask for some advice on/about (doing) sth., help sb. with sth., have a conversation with sb., show/take sb. around someplace, be good / bad for, be good to sb., be good at, say hello to---, the English name for---, learn---from--, think about, dream about / of (doing) sth., take photos of---, send sth. to sb,. refer to,
depend on , in one’s opinion, belong to, on one’s way to, as far as, stand for, prefer --- rather than, as well as, instead of, get on/along (well) with， together/along with, add to, plenty of, dream of/about, get out of, at the bottom of, on the edge of, reply to, be away from, for a time, be to do with, be mad with, look through, at a time, be the same as, be different from, drop in (on sb. / at sp. ), on one’s own, do harm to, make a difference to ---,hope for, have a look at, be similar to, get/be used to, be proud of, be in with a chance to do, be pleased with, thank to, have a word with, a series of, bump into sb., be close to, apply for, provide sb. with sth., help sb. with sth., go for a walk, (at) the speed of, be worried about 等。
连词(Conjection)
一．概念理解：连词是连接词、短语、从句与句子的词，是虚词，因此它不独立担任句子成分。
二．连词类别：主要分为并列连词和从属连词两大类。
A. 并列连词用来连接并列关系的词、词组或从句，包括：and, then, or, but, however, so, nor, therefore, yet, for, otherwise, both---and, either---or, neither---nor, not only---but also, as well as等。
B. 从属连词用来引导从句，包括：that, when, while, till, until, after, before, since, because, whether, (al)though, so---that, so that, in order that, as soon as, as---as one can, than, where, wherever等。
三．并列连词用法参考后面将要讲解的简单句（重点是主谓一致），并列句部分语法解释；
从属连词用法参考复合句部分语法解释。在此恕不赘述。动词(Verbs)
一．英语中，每个句子必有一个动词(行为动词或连系动词)来担任谓语。说明主语“做什么”或“是什么”。
二．动词的种类：
根据语法作用，动词可分为行为动词、系动词、助动词和情态动词四大类。
三．动词的句法功能：
A.行为动词：行为动词含实在意义，表动作或状态，能独立作谓语。分为及物和不及物动词。
1).及物动词：后面可以直接带宾语的动词叫及物动词。
例：I’m writing a letter to my parents. Who told you the news
2).不及物动词：后面不能直接带宾语的动词叫不及物动词。
例：The baby is crying. They are listening to the radio.
**(1)有些动词既可以作及物动词，也可以作不及物动词。
例：He studies English very hard.(及物) He studies very hard.(不及物)
(2)不及物动词如要带宾语，须加相应的介词变为动词短语后再带宾语。
例：The little is waiting at the bus stop.The little girl is waiting for the bus.
B.系动词：本身有一定的词义，但意义不够完整，不能单独作谓语，须和作表语的词语连用。常用的系动词有以下两类。
系动词 完全系动词 常译作“是”或不译 be
不完全系动词 表示处于某种状态 sound,smell,taste,feel.look
表转变或逐渐具有某性质 become,run,go,get,grow,turn,fall
表持续保持某状态或性质 keep,stay,stand,remain,continue
表示看法 seem,look,appear,prove
注意：(1)有的动词既可作系动词，也可以作行为动词。如：smell,look,go,get等.
(2)系动词后面可跟名词、形容词、不定式、介词短语或少数副词
例：1.LiLei was ill last month. 2.The song sounds wonderful.
3.Jim has become a soldier. 4.Lily seems to have known the news.
5.The were at home just now. 6.The train has been away for an hour.
C.助动词：
不能独立作谓语，只能和主要动词一起构成谓语。其作用是表示否定、疑问、时态、语态、强调及其
他语法关系。助动词必须和主语保持人称和数的一致。常用的助动词有：
(1) be a. “be+现在分词”构成进行时态
He is watching TV in the office. They were reading books then.
b. “be+过去分词”构成被动语态
English is spoken all over the world.Old people should be spoken to politely.
(2) have/has或had “have/has或had+过去分词”构成完成时态
He has just finished his homework. The film had been on for half an hour when we got to the cinema.
(3) do/does或did
a. do/does或did 构成一般现在/过去时的疑问句或否定句
Does LinTao have lunch at school We don’t have lessons on Sunday.
How did they go to the Great Wall I didn’t know anything about it.
b. “do/does或did+动词原形”用来加强语气
Ask Jim, he did know the man in white.
c. do/does或did可用来代替前面已经提到过的动词，以避免重复
-Do you take a walk after supper –Yes, I do. -Who went to plant the trees – LiLei and Idid.
(4) shall(should)/will(would)
“shall(should)/will(would)+动词原形”构成一般/过去将来时
注意：shall和should表示将来时主语须是第一人称I或we
When shall we meet They won’t be here until next Friday.
Tom said that he would go shopping with his uncle.
注意：shall not 的缩写式为shan’t；will not 的缩写式为won’t.
D.情态动词：
本身有一定意义，但不能独立作谓语，必须和主要动词一起构成谓语动词，表示说话人的语气和情态。情态动词没有人称和数的变化。
1. can can,can’t /could,couldn’t的用法：
a. 表示能力，“能/会(=be able to, 强调能力常用be able to)”
1). I can’t speak French. 2). He told me that he could work out the problem by himself.
3). - Can you speak English - Yes, I can. / No, I can’t. (问答都用can)
b. 表示可能性，表示怀疑或不肯定，常用于否定或疑问句中，“可能”。
1).Can it be true –Yes,it must(肯定常用). /No, it can’t (否定常用).
2).He can’t be in the lab because I met him just now.(“不可能”)
3).She can’t have said such a foolish thing.(表对过去的否定推断)（她肯定不曾说过这么愚蠢的事情）
c. 表示请求或允许，“可以”，常用于口语或非正式场合，同may。
-Can I have a look at your new camera –Yes, you can. / No, you can’t/mustn’t.(问答视语气而定)
注意：1)表示能力时，can和be able to意思相同。但can只有现在式和过去式(could)；
而be able to可以有多种时态形式，并有人称和数的变化。
I can just ride the bicycle now, but I’m sure I will be able to drive a car.
2)could常可用于表说话委婉、客气的现在时的句子中 (不一定表示过去)。
Could I borrow your bike, please Could you tell me how to go there
2. may may/might的用法：
a. 表示允许或许可，“可以”常用于书面语或正式场合，口语中常用can(否定回答不用maynot 形式)
1. - May I ask you some questions - Yes, you may / can. / No, you can’t / mustn’t. (问答视语气而定)
2. You may leave here after school.
b. 表示请求许可，肯定回答可用may也可用certainly或of course。否定回答用can’t(不能)
或mustn’t(禁止/不可以)代替may not (may not是不客气说法，不常用)
-May I go home now -Yes, you may. / No, you can’t / mustn’t (until your work is done).
c. 表示推测，用于谈论可能性，常用于肯定句中，“可能、或许”；
用might(1)表过去时 (2)表语气更委婉、客气或对可能性的怀疑(虚拟语气)，即更小的可能性。
1) I’m afraid I may be a little late. 2) I think he might be in class.(过去)
3) Might I borrow some money now (客气) 4) He might be alive.(虚拟)
d. 用于表示祝愿，用于祈使句中。May you succeed.
3. must must的用法：
a. 表示必要性“必须，应该，一定”，否定式mustn’t表示“禁止,不许”
1). I must finish my homework first. 2). You mustn’t swim alone in the river.
b. 用于疑问句，其否定回答形式为needn’t, 表示“不必”。
-Must I clean the room now -Yes, you must. / No, you needn’t (don’t have to).You can do it after school.
c.“ must+be+表语 ”表对现在情况的推测，“一定/准是”；用于肯定句(否定形式can not或can’t)。
1). Mary must be in the library now, for I saw her there a moment ago.
2). Kate must be in the classroom now, isn’t she
d.“must + have +过去分词”表示对过去事情的推测，“想必，一定已经”。
1). The man is having a rest, he must have finished his work.
2). He must have told my parents about it, didn’t he
注意：have to 与must的区别：
1. must表说话者的主观看法，而have to则强调客观需要做的事情。
1). I must finish the work by 5 o’clock, then I can go to visit Uncle Wang.
2). He has to go back home because he forgot to shut the windows.
2. must无人称、数和时态变化，而have to则有人称、数和时态变化；如要体现时态表达，可用have to的不同形式表达。
1). -Must Tom be here before 7 o’clock – No, he needn’t.
2). He had to do his homework again, for he had made so many mistakes.
3.两者否定式意义不同，must not表“不许/一定不能”，而do not have to “不必”(= needn’t)的意思。
1). -May I smoke here now - Sorry, sir, You mustn’t smoke here.
2). -Must I fetch the newspaper right now – No, you needn’t/don’t have to.
4. need与dare的用法：
二者都既可以作情态动词，也可以作行为动词，表示“需要; 敢于”。
注意：1). 作情态动词时，一般用于疑问或否定句中，无人称、数和时态变化。(dare有时态变化)
1).-Need I go there now -Yes, you must.(肯定回答用must) - No, you needn’t/you don’t have to.(否定回答)
2). How dare you say I am unfair I dare not go out alone at night.
2). 作行为动词时，有人称、数和时态的变化，后接名词、代词、不定式或动名词等形式作宾语，
句型变化与普通行为动词相同。
1).Do you need to do it right now 2) This bike needs repairing. 3).Do you dare to climb the ladder
3). need还可用作名词。 A friend in need is a close friend indeed.
5. will will/would的用法：
a. 常用于第二人称作主语的疑问句中，表说话人向对方提出请求或询问。would比will更委婉、客气。
1) Will you please open the door for me 2) Would you mind my turning up the radio
b. 用于各种人称肯定句中，表示意愿和决心。would为will的过去式。
1). I’ll do my best to catch up with them. 2). He said he would help me.
c. 表示现在或过去的习惯性动作或某种必然的倾向，“往往；总------”
1). Fish will die without water. 2). Sometimes the door won’t open.
3). When he was a child, he would swim in the lake. (注意：will not 的缩写式为 won’t.)
6. used to used to的用法：
表示过去的习惯性动作或状态，只表过去时，用于各种人称，“过去常常”。
1). He used to walk along the lake after supper,usedn’t(didn’t) he
2). He used not (didn’t use) to like Peking opera.
3). Used you (Did you use) to watch TV on Saturday evening
注意：现在大多数人在口语中或非正式的书面语中对疑问式或否定式常使用与do连用的形式
※ would 与used to的区别：
would 后面常接表示行为动作的动词，即动态动词；
He would walk to school when he was in Grade 3. (动态)
used to 后面可接动态或静态动词。
He used to walk to school when he was in Grade 3. (动态)
He used to be an English teacher, he used to stay in the library after school. (静态)
7. shall shall/should的用法：
两者表示命令、警告、允许、征求、劝告、建议、惊奇等，“应该”。
shall用于第一人称(I,we)作主语的表将来的疑问句中，表示征求意见或提出建议 。
Shall we go to the Palace Museum this afternoon
should是shall的过去式形式可用于各种人称和数,表示“应该”。
The young should be polite to the old.
注意：shall not 的缩写式为shan’t.
8. had better had better的用法：
表示提建议或劝告，“最好------”。(后面接不带to的不定式<即原形>；否定式为had better not do sth.)
1). You’d better go there by bus. 2). We had better not go out, it’s too cold.
3). Had he better not leave here now
主语和谓语的一致
一．一致是一个语法范畴，是指句子里各个成分之间的语法关系(人称、数、格、性等方面)必须配合得当。主谓一致是指谓语动词必须和主语的单、复数形式及人称的变化保持一致。主谓一致有三个原则。
A. 语法一致
例：1. She loves music. (主谓都是单数形式) 2. His parents are doctors. (主谓都是复数形式)
B. 意义一致
例：1.The police caught the thief. (主语单数式，表复数概念)
2.Five years is not a long time. (主语复数式，表一个整体)
3. All are present and all is going on well. (all前者指“所有的人”，复数；后者指“所有的事物”，单数)
C. 就近一致(即临近规则)
例：1.Here is a letter and two magazines for you. 2.Either you or I am right.
二．具体情况分析：
1.以and或both--- and---连接的并列主语通常作复数用：
例：1.Water and air are very important. 2.Both Tom and I are fed up with medicine.
**注意：如果and连接的两个并列单数名词指的是同一个人或物(或概念)时，谓语用单数：
例：1.The worker and writer has come.这位工人作家来了。(只用一the，同一人)
而： The worker and the writer have come. (用两处the,不同人)
2.Truth and honesty is the best policy. 真诚是最好的策略 (表抽象意义的同一概念)
**注意：如果and的前后的单数词有each,every,no等修饰时，谓语仍用单数（此时and=or）：
例：1.Each boy and each girl enjoys singing and dancing.2.No teacher and no student is allowed to leave early.
2.如果主语是单数，尽管后面有with, together / along with,like,besides, but, except, in addition to等引起的短语，谓语动词仍用单数，即只和第一个名词或代词在“人称”和“数”上一致：
例：1.A woman with her two children is coming up to us.
2.No one except / but two doctors knows how to perform the operation.
3.Lucy,together with her friends often does some shopping on Sunday.
**注意：当两个名词或代词用as well as(还有),as much as,rather than(而不是),more than连接起来作主语时，谓语须和第一个名/代词的“人称”和“数”一致：
例：1.This worker, as well as the manager, is working during the holiday.
2.The parents, rather than their son, are responsible for this accident.
3. 集合名词family,audience,company,crowd,public,group,team,class crew (全体乘务员), enemy, committee(委员会)等表达整体概念时，谓语用单数；表达个体(成员) 概念时，谓语用复数：
例：1.Our family is a big one. His family were watching TV last night.
2.Team One has 12 members. Team One are singing and dancing.
3.Half of the class have done most of the work.
**注意：集合名词people, police, staff (全体职员), cattle(牛群), poultry (家禽) , militia (民兵) 等作主语时，谓语用复数：
例：1.People like skating in winter. 2.The police are looking for the lost child.
English,Chinese,Japanese等与the连用作主语时表示复数意义，谓语用复数：
例：The Chinese are kind and friendly.
4. 由there或here引导的句子(如果主语有一个以上)或either---or,neither---nor, not only---but (also), or,
not --- but连接并列主语时, 谓语通常和邻近的主语在人称和数上保持一致 (即遵循就近规则)：
例：1. You or Tom is to do the work. 2. Either he or I am going to pick you up.
3. There is a cat and two dogs here. 4. Not only his friends but (also) he has read this novel.
5. Neither this jacket nor that one fits me. 6. Not they but Mr Zhang has helped me a lot.
5. 表示时间、距离、长度、重量、金钱(价值)等复数形式名词作主语时，表整体概念，视为单数:
例：1.Ten years is a moment in history. 2.Thirty dollars is more than I can pay.
3.Two kilometers is a short way to walk. 4.Two and two is four.
5.Twelve inches makes one foot.
6. physics,maths,news,plastics,politics,congratulations 等形似复数，实为单数，谓语用单数：
例：1.Physics is my favourite subject. 2.No news is good news.
7. 先行词是one of+复数名词(作主语)时,关系代词用作复数，谓语用复数；one前有the(one)时，谓语用单数：
例：1.One of the world’s most popular water sports is surfing.
**2.Tom is one of the boys who like football very much.
**3.Tom is the only one of the boys who likes football very much.
8.“a (large) number of(许多)+复数名词”作主语时，谓语用复数；
“the (largest) number of+复数名词”作主语时，谓语用单数：
例：1. A large/small number of boys go to the park every day.
2. The number of the students is increasing in our school.
The largest number of gold medals was won by China in the 29 th Beijing Olympic Games.
**注意：all,a lot of,most(half,more,enough,any,the rest) of等修饰的名词作主语时，其所修饰的是复数可
数名词时，谓语用复数；如果是不可数名词或单数名词时，谓语则用单数：
例：1.Most of his money is spent on books. 2.Most of the students know my name.
9.more than one--- 或many a--- (都表“许多” )等作主语时，须根据其后面的名词而定，如接单数名词，谓语用单数；如接复数名词，谓语用复数：
例：1.More than one way has been found to stop the pollution.
More than a thousand visitors have come already.
2.Many a man has given his life for the cause(事业) of the revolution（革命）.
10.分数、百分数后跟不可数名词或单数名词时，谓语用单数；后跟复数可数名词时，谓语用复数：
例：1.Two-fifths(Forty percent) of the students in our class are girls.
2.Three quarters of the surface of the earth is covered with water.
3. Three-fourths of the apple is red.
4. One out of five of the world population is in China.
**注意：Eighty percent of the population of China is in the countryside.
80%of the population of China are peasants (农民).
11.由each,either,neither以及由every,some,any,no构成的复合不定代词作主语时，或由“either/neither of+名词/代词复数”作主语时，谓语用单数。
例：1.Each of the girls is pretty. 2.I have two brothers,but neither is in now.
3.Nobody likes this music. 4.Everything was ready at six, wasn’t it
5.Either(of the trains) goes to Shanghai.
6.Neither of them was late for school.(**Both of them were late for school)
**注意：1).none作单数、复数都可以，但通常多用作复数 (后常接表范围的复数名词)。
例：None of them is/are interested in science.
2)“each of+复数名/代词”作主语时，谓语用单、复数均可。单数强调个体，复数强调整体。
例：1.Each of them has/have a dictionary. 2.Each of them has his own duty.
但是：each 用于复数名词后作同位语 此时谓语动词用复数：
They each have an English-Chinese dictionary.
The young people each carry a big bag.
They each have a dictionary.
3) either,“either of+复数名词”，谓语用单数；而either of you或用于否定句中，谓语用复数。
例：1.Either of you are right. 2.I don’t think either of them are at home.(I think neither of them is at home.)
12.在算式中或询问某物价格时，谓语用单、复数都行：
例：1.What’s one plus two 2.Six and four is/are ten. 3.How much is the watch 4.How much are the apples
加减乘除表示法
1).“加”用plus，and或add表示；“等于”用is，make，equal等词表示。
2+3= 可表示为： How much is two plus three
2+3=5 Two plus three is five．(plus 介词) Two and three is equal to five．(and 连词，equal形容词)
Two and three makes five. Two added to three equals five.(add的过去分词表被动义，equal动词)
If we add two to/and three, we get five．(add --- to / and 动词短语)
2). “减”用 minus或 take from表示; “等于”用is，make，equal等词表示。
10－6＝ How much is ten minus six (minus 介词)
10-6=4 Ten minus six is four. (minus 介词)
Take six from ten and the remainder is four. (take --- from 动词短语)
Six (taken) from ten is / makes / equals / is equal to four．(take的过去分词表被动义)
3).“乘”用times（介词）或multiply(动词) 表示；“等于”用is，make，equal等词表示。
3X4＝ How much is three times four
3X4=12 Three times four is / are twelve．(times介词)
Multiply three by four，we get twelve．(multiply by 动词短语)
Three multiplied by four makes twelve．(multiply by的过去分词表被动义)
4).“除”用divide的过去分词形式表示；“等于”用is，make，equal等词表示。
16÷4= How much is sixteen divided by four
16÷4＝4 Sixteen divided by four is / makes / equals / is equal to four．
Sixteen divided by four equals/gives/makes four．(divided by过去分词短语表被动义)
13.主语如果是一个表示抽象概念的从句(即主语从句)、不定式或动名词短语，谓语用单数：
例：1.What he wants to do is not clear. 2.To look after children is her job.
3.Reading in the sun is bad for your eyes.
14.“the + 形容词或过去分词”作主语时表类别，谓语用复数：
例：1.It is known that the old are always replaced (取代)by the new and the young are always willing to
accept the new.
2.The aged are now being provided with free medical care(免费医疗).
15. A. a pair of glasses (trousers, shorts, boots, socks, trainers, scissors, chopsticks, gloves, compasses) 表示的是“一对/双”，表示由两部分构成的一个整体事物，视为单数，谓语用单数(谓语形式决定于pair的单复数形式)：
例：A pair of glasses is lying on the ground. **但：My glasses are lying on the ground.
a couple of --- 表示的是“一对”独立的个体，相当于two或double，表达复数概念，因而谓语动词用复数形式。
A couple of adults come to help the wounded (受伤的) driver.
I found a ____ of socks in the bedroom but they don't make a ______.
B.a kind of --- 结构作主语时的谓语动词形式决定于其后面的名词形式： 例：This kind of bikes are made in Tianjin.
16.“the+姓氏复数”表示一家人或夫妇二人，谓语用复数：
例：The Smiths have been in China for many years.
17. means作主语名词means(方法)单数与复数同形，用作主语时，其谓语的单复数要视具体含义而定
(尤其注意其前的修饰语)：
These means are very good. Such a means is really unpleasant.
若没有特定修饰语或语境，用单数或复数均可：
There is /are no good means. Are /Is there any other means of doing it
动词的时态和语态
动词的时态和语态是句子的两个基本属性，如同车的左右轮子，两者互为依存、互为融合，缺一不可。即没有不含语态的时态句，也没有不含时态的语态句。时态是“以动词的适当形式体现谓语发生的时间及与事件的关系”，语态说明的是主语与谓语动词之间的关系。
时态（Tense of Verb）
英语中，在不同的时间前提下以不同的方式发生的动作或存在的状态，要用动词的不同形式表达出来。动词的这种不同表达形式就是动词的时态。
A.一般现在时（The Present Indefinite Tense）
概念理解：表示现在经常或习惯性的动作或状态和普遍现象、常识或客观真理。
基本用法：
1. 现在、当前存在的状态、性质、或经常发生的动作或习惯。常与always, usually, often ,sometimes, seldom, never , every week, twice a week等连用
例：1、What do you usually do at night 2、Does Kate have lunch at school every day
3、LiLei doesn’t do his homework at school 4、-How often do you write to him -Twice a month
5、English and French are spoken in Canada.
2. 根据规定或时间安排将要发生的动作，常用come ,go ,move, leave ,arrive ,start等
例：1. The meeting starts at 8:15. 2. The plane arrives at 4:30,doesn’t it
3. 在时间或条件状语从句中，用一般现在时表示将来时（即“主将从现”）
例：1. Tell him about it as soon as he comes back. 2. I will go to the park if it doesn’t rain next Sunday
4. 表示客观事实或普遍真理，用一般现在时
例：1. Light travels much faster than sound 2. Two and five is seven
注意：1.行为动词作谓语，主语是单数第三人称时，动词用单数第三人称形式：
行为动词单数第三人称构成和读音规则：**have-has
情况 构成方式 读音 例词
一般情况 加-s 清/s/，元/浊/z/ helps ,makes ,rides ,knows
以o/s/x/ ch/ sh结尾 加-es -es读/iz/ does, fixes, watches, washes
以ce /se结尾 加-s 读/iz/ dances, closes
元音字母+y结尾 加-s 读/z/ plays, stays
辅音字母+y结尾 变y为i，加-es 读/z/ carries , hurries
2.行为动词作谓语一般现在时句型变化须借助于助动词do, don’t/does, doesn’t ,句中行为动词用原形
B.现在进行时（The Present Continuous Tense）
一．构成形式：助动词am/ is/ are + V - ing（现在分词）
二．基本用法：
1.表说话时或当前一段时间内正在发生或一直在进行的动作，常与look, listen, be quiet/ careful, look
out(句首), now , right now ,these days ,at the / this moment ,this week ,at present(目前),at the time等连用。
例：1 Look! What are they doing 2. I’m not working these days.
3. -Are they running all the time -Yes , they are. 4. Be quiet ! The baby is sleeping.
2.按计划或安排将发生的动作，常用arrive ,go, come, do, begin, start, leave, drive, stay ,fly, return ,take, see
off (送行),get to ,take off (起飞)等表位置移动的动词常用进行时表将来。（常带必要的“将来”时间）
例：1. How are you getting to the airport 2. The whole family is leaving for Shanghai soon.
3. They are flying to Guangzhou before long (不久以后).
3.与always , forever ,again, all the time.等词语连用可表反复发生的动作或持续存在的状态，常含说话人的
思想感情
例：1. He is always coming late. (厌恶/责备) 2. LiLei is always helping others (赞赏)
注意：1.表示存在、感情或感官动词常不用进行时2．动词的现在分词规则变化：
变化规则 动词原形 现在分词
一般词尾加- ing help helping
以不发音e结尾的，去e再加-ing write writing
以重读闭音节结尾的，先双写末尾辅音字母，再加-ing runbegin runningbeginning
特例句 die ,lie ,tie dying ,lying ,tying
3.现在进行时的句式变化体现在be的表达形式和位置上
C.一般过去时（The Past Indefinite Tense）
基本用法：1）表示在确定的过去时间发生的动作或存在的状态，或过去的一段时间内经常性或反复性动
作，常与last year ,an hour ago ,the other day(头几天)，just now ,in1980,always ,often 或由when等引导表过
去的时间状语连用。
例：1. -Where were you last week -I was in the village 2. I could swim when I was six.
3. -Where did they go just now -They went to the park. 4. Kate didn’t go shopping an hour ago
5. They often came back home late when they worked in this factory last year.
2)在时间/条件状语从句中，用一般过去时表示过去将来的动作（主将从现）
例：1. I promised to buy him a new bag when I went to Shanghai.
2. He told me he would help us plant trees if he had time
注意：A.一般过去时的谓语动词用过去式；行为动词作谓语的在变为问句或否定句时，须加did 或didn’t，句中行为动词用原形
B.动词的过去式有规则变化和不规则变化（不规则变化须参考课本后表）
规则变化 动词原形 过去式/过去分词
一般词尾加-ed；清辅音后读/t/，元/浊辅音后读/d/；/t/,/d/后读/id/ work, answer, call, need, want worked, answered, called, needed, wanted
以字母e结尾的加-d Live, hope lived, hoped
辅音字母+y结尾的，变y为i再加ed，读/d/（元音不变） study , try ,carry studied, tried, carried
末尾只有一个辅音字母的重读闭音节词，双写再加-ed stop, fit, prefer, drop, plan, shop, step, trap, travel stopped, fitted, preferred, dropped, planned, shopped, stepped, trapped, travel(l)ed
D.过去进行时（The Past Continuous Tense）
一．构成形式：助动词was/ were + V-ing(现在分词)
二．基本用法：
1.表过去某一时间或某阶段时间内正在进行的动作，常和表过去时间点或段的状语从句、上下文或last night, thismorning, during the day, the whole night, from noon to 2 pm, at that moment, at this time yesterday , on my way to school, when/while引导的从句连用
例：1.-What were you doing at 9:00 last night – I was writing a letter.
2. Kate was having supper when I went to see her. （主句：进行时；从句：一般时，瞬间性动词）
LiLei came to see me when / while I was watching TV. (主句：一般时；从句：进行时，延续性动词)
3. I was reading when / while they were talking at this time yesterday.
4. They weren’t playing football yesterday / the whole afternoon.
在when/while引导的时间状语从句中，强调某一动作正在进行的过程中，要用进行时态。
when 可用于表时间点或时间段，因此在它引导的状语从句中，可用瞬间性也可用延续性动词；
while(= during the time/at the same time)表一段时间，在它引导的状语从句中，用表延续性的动词。
（即when比while用得广些）
例：The light went out (熄灭) when /while we were having supper.
注意：当when作并列连词时，主句常用进行时态，从句则用一般过去时：表示主句动作发生的过程中，从句所表示的意想不到的动作发生了
例：I was walking in the street when someone called me. (when = just at this moment/suddenly then)
2. 动作概念较强动词，如：go, come, leave, start, begin, open 等可用于表示将来的动作（在宾语从句中）
例：I wondered when they were leaving for Shanghai.
注意：过去进行时的句型变化体现助动词was/were的表达形式和位置上.
※进行时需用延续性动词；一般时需用结束性动词
E.一般将来时（The Future Indefinite Tense）
一．构成形式：助动词shall/ will + V（动词原形）(说明：主语是I或we时，一般用shall ;其它用will)
二．基本用法：
1.表将来某时间将要发生的动作或存在的状态，常与tomorrow , next week, some day, soon , before long , in a few years’ time等表将来的状语或从句连用
例：1. He will be back tomorrow 2. Shall we go shopping this afternoon
3. –Will you go there in a few days – No , I won’t. 4. They’ll go to the park if it doesn’t rain next Sunday
5. In a few years’ time , the mountain will be covered with trees
6. There will be a football match next Tuesday
2.表将来经常、反复发生的动作或某种必然趋势或祈使句的并列分句及反义疑问句中，常用一般将来时。
例：1. We shall have our league meeting once a week. 2. Fish will die without water
3. Open the door, will you 4. Let’s begin now, shall we / Let us go shopping, will you
5. Hurry up, or you will be late.
将来时的其他表达形式
be going to + V （动词原形）：多用于口语，表计划、打算或自然必然要发生的事情
例：1.I’m going to do some shopping on Sunday 2.Look at the cloud, it’s going to rain.
3.There is going to be a football match next Tuesday.
be going to与will的区别
be going to与will两者都可表示将要发生的事、将要去做某事，但它们有如下几点区别：
1. be going to 表示近期、眼下就要发生的事情，will 表示的将来时间则较远一些。
He is going to write a letter tonight. He will write a book one day.
2. be going to 表示根据主观判断将来肯定发生的事情，will表示客观上将来势必发生的事情。
Look at the sky. It seems (that) it’s going to rain soon. Fish will die without water.
He is seriously ill. He is going to die. He will be twenty years old.
3. be going to 含有“计划，准备”的意思，而 will 则没有这个意思。
She is going to lend us her book. He will be here in half an hour.
4. 在有条件从句的主句中，一般不用 be going to, 而多用will。
If any beast comes at you, I'll stay with you and help you
B. be + to do (不定式)：表示按计划或正式安排将要发生的事情
例：We are to discuss the report next Monday
C. be about to + V (动词原形)：表即将做某事，不带主观性，常与明确的时间连用
例：1. He is about to leave for Beijing. 2. The train is about to go at 8:00 o’clock
D.某些动词的一般现在时/现在进行时，时间/条件状语从句中的一般现在式，都可用来表达将来（参考前面相关时态语法解释：主将从现）
注意：1.一般将来时的句型变化体现在will/shall 或be 的表达形式和位置上
2.will not 的缩略式是won’t ; shall not 的缩略式是 shan’t
F.过去将来时（The Future-in-the-Past Tense）
一．构成形式：助动词should/would +V(动词原形)
说明：主语是I或we时，一般用should;而would可用于各种人称
二．基本用法：表从过去的某一时间看来将要发生的动作或存在的状态（是一种相对的时态），即：过去将来时是“立足过去，着眼未来”的一种时态，常用于宾语从句中
判断：要有表示过去的“动作”为时间起点，而不是“时间”（如为过去时间用过去时）。
例：1. They were sure (that) they would win the football match 2. I didn’t know when he would arrive
3. He wondered if / whether his father would meet him
4. He asked me if / whether there would be a concert the next day
过去将来时的其他表达形式
was /were going to + V (动词原形)
He said he was going to plant some trees. He asked if/whether there was going to be a concert the next day
was/ were + to do (不定式) They wanted to know when the shop was to open
was/were about to + V (动词原形) LiLei said (that ) they were about to hold a meeting
was/were +doing(过去进行时的形式) I was told (that ) Lucy was leaving for Japan the next week
注意：arrive, go, come , travel, move, begin, start, leave, drive, stay, fly , return, take, see off（送行）, get to, take
off (起飞) 等的过去进行时形式可用来表示过去将来的动作或状态。
在时间/条件状语从句中，常用一般过去时形式来表示过去将来的动作或状态（主将从现）
例：1. Did Kate tell you when she would come if she was free
2. Lily asked us to her party when we had nothing to do.
3. Tom told me (that) he would come to see me as soon as he arrived in Beijing.
注意：过去将来时的句型变化体现在would/should 或 be 的表达形式和位置上
G.现在完成时（The Present Perfect Tense）
一．构成形式：助动词have / has + done(过去分词)
二．基本用法
A.表示过去发生或已经完成的某一动作对现在构成的影响或结果。重点说明的是现在的情况，常与表时
间的just, already, yet, before, recently, lately (近来), so far等和表频率或次数的ever, never, once, twice,
several times等连用。
例: She has just finished her homework 说明：作业完成发生在“过去” ，但重点是“现在没有作业了”
Is this the first time you have visited Beijing 说明：“参观北京”行为已实现，且人依然没有离去。
B.表过去已经开始，持续到现在的动作或状态。可与表从过去延续至现在的一段时间的状语连用。如：these days, so far, up to now / the present, up till now, ever since, until / till now, in (during) the past (last) few years, (ever) since + 过去时间点(词，短语或句子), for + 一段时间(短语)。
例:1. I have stayed here these days 2. How many books have you read so far
3. Has he planted more than 50 trees during the past few weeks
4. We’ve known each other since ten years ago. = It’s ten years since we got to know each other
5. She hasn’t come here for nearly ten years
6. In the past few years there have been great changes in our hometown .
说明：since后面可跟表示过去时间的词、短语或句子；而for后面跟表示“从过去某一时间至现在”的一段时间短语。
例：I have worked in this school since I came in 2003 = I have worked in this school for about four years.
注意：当与表示从过去某时延续至现在的一段时间的状语连用时，句中谓语动词应用延续性动词或“have / has + been +（相应的）形容词/副词/名词/介词短语”（即系表结构，表状态的延续性）等形式。
例：1. I bought this novel three days ago (非延) =I have had this novel since three days ago / for three days (延)
2. The cat died two weeks ago (非延) =The cat has been dead since two weeks ago/ for two weeks(延)
3. He left here half an hour ago (非延) =He has been away from here since half an hour ago / for ---(延)
4. We joined the League in 2000(非延)=We have been League Members / in the League since 2000/ for (延)
5. Lin Tao joined the army two years ago. (非延) = Lin Tao has been a soldier since two years ago / for-(延)
常用的非延续性动词与一段时间连用时的延续性表达转换方式：
非延续性动词 延续性 非延续性动词 延续性
buy Have wake be awake
borrow Keep fall asleep/get to sleep sleep/be asleep
move to live in die be dead
get back（取回） have back return ;come/go/get back be back
catch a cold have cold end be over
get to know Know start/begin be on
put on Wear leave be away (from)
hear from/get a letter from have a letter from turn on/off; sth. + go off sth.be on /off
close be closed come/go to be in/on/at
open be open reach/get to/arrive in/at be in/on/at
get up be up join / become etc. be a member of--- /a---member (成员); be in/with---（组织、团队）
注意：非延续性动词在否定结构中可用于含一段时间的现在完成时
例：I haven’t borrowed any books for a week(不用keep)
have gone to 表示已经去某地了 ， 强调此刻不在谈话地点 （不表延续性）
例：1. He has gone to the bookstore. He will come back in an hour 2. Have they just gone there
have been to 表曾经去过某地，强调经历，往往此刻已经不在该地了。（不表延续性）
例：1. Has he ever been to Shanghai before 2. I have been there twice so far. I have never been abroad before.
have been in / on / at 表示在某地呆了多久了，表延续意义，可与一段时间连用（不表延续性）
1. How long have you been in China 2. He’s been on the farm since last year.3. They’ve been here for two weeks.
注意：因为英语中home/here/there等都是副词，上述三个结构中都不用介词
注意：1.现在完成时句型变化体现在助动词have/has的表达形式和位置上
2.动词的过去分词有规则变化（同于过去式）和不规则变化（参考课后表）
一般过去时与现在完成时的区别
一般过去时只表示过去的动作或状态，和现在不发生联系，可以与表过去的时间状语连用；而现在完成时表示过去的某一动作对现在造成的影响或结果，强调的是现在的情况，不能与表过去的时间状语连用
例：I saw the film last week (只说明last week的情况，不涉及现在的情况)
I have seen the film(动作发生在过去，但说明的是现在对电影有所了解这一情况)
1. 现在完成时和一般过去时都表示在过去完成的动作，但现在完成时强调这一动作与现在的关系，如对
现在产生的结果、影响等，而一般过去时则表示动作发生在过去，一般不表示和现在的关系。
例：- Have you had your lunch - Yes, I have.
- When did you have it - I had it about half an hour ago.
2. 一般过去时常与具体的时间状语连用，而现在完成时常与表过去的模糊的时间状语（如before等）连用，或无时间状语。
一般过去时：yesterday, last week, --- ago, in 1980, in October, just now等具体的时间状语。
现在完成时：always, ever, never, some times, just, already (yet), recently, lately, before, so far, till / until---, up to now, in the past years等不确定的时间状语。
二者共同的时间状语： this morning, tonight, this month, now, once, before, already, recently, lately等.
3. 现在完成时可表持续到现在的动作或状态，动词常为延续性的，如：live, have, keep, teach, be away等。
一般过去时只表过去的行为，常用非延续性动词，如：come, go, leave, borrow, die, finish, start等。
H.过去完成时（The Past Perfect Tense）
一． 构成形式：助动词had + done (过去分词)
二． 基本用法：表示在某时刻或动作之前已经发生或完成的动作或存在的状态。表示动作发生在“过去的过去”（也是一种相对的状态）
1. 用在主句为一般过去时的宾语从句中
1. He told me（that）Kate had gone to Shanghai 2. Mary asked if / whether I had finished reading the book.
2. 用在“when / before + 过去时态从句 ”、“after / until + 过去完成时态从句”或有“by + 过去时间”
的句子中
例：1. The bus had left when I got to the station
2. Had the film begun before you arrived at the cinema？
3. By the time I read his novel , I had known him for a month
4. How many songs had you learned by the end of last term
5. He didn’t get off the bus until it had stopped (主句动词非延续性)
6. She had worked in this school until she retired last year (主句动词延续性)
3.和由for或since引导的、表一段时间的短语或从句连用
例：1. He had worked in this factory for 5 years before he moved.
2. He said（that）great changes had taken place in his hometown since 1980/he left here.
特殊用法：
1.动词 hope, plan, expect , think , mean , want 等有时用过去完成时表示一个本来打算做而未做或未实现的事。 例：We had excepted to catch the 7：00 train , but we missed it
2.当一个由when , before, after, as soon as等引导的从句表的动作和主句的动作紧密相接时，两动作都可用一般过去时
1. We had breakfast after we did morning exercises 2. When I finish supper, I took a walk
3. He got up quickly, had breakfast and hurried to school4. They started working as soon as they got to there.
注意：1. 过去完成时不与yesterday, last week, three years ago等表具体过去的时间语连用(这些状语用于一般过去/过去进行时)，但可与表不具体或不确切的“过去的过去”的时间状语连用
比较：He broke his glasses two days ago (从现在看“两天前”发生的事情)
He said (that) he had broken his glasses two days before. (从过去看“两天前”发生的事情)
2. 现在完成时与过去完成时：
现在完成时表示动作相对于“现在”而言已经完成，其对照时间点为“现在”；而过去完成时表示
动作相对于“过去”某一时刻前已经完成，其对照时间点为“过去”。另外，同现在完成时一样，
过去完成时也要注意延续性与非延续性动词的正确使用。
例：1. I have studied here for nearly two years since I came here
2. I had studied here for nearly two years before I left here
注意：1. 过去完成时句型变化体现在助动词had的表达形式和位置上
2. 动词的过去分词有规则变化（同于过去式）和不规则变化（参考课后表）
（二）语态(Voice of Verb)
一．概念理解：语态是说明主语和谓语之间的关系的概念。在一个常规句子中，时态和语态互相交融而不是孤立独存的。英语中分为主动和被动语态。
例：主动语态：S（主语）+ V（谓语）+ O（宾语） He teaches English
被动语态：S（主语）+ be + V-ed（谓语）+（by---） English is taught by him.
注：主动语态中，主语是动作的发出者；被动语态中，主语是动作的承受者、
二．被动语态结构：助动词be + done (过去分词)
一般现在时： am / is / are / + done can/ may / must / should + be +done
一般过去时： was / were + done could / might + be + done
一般将来时： will / shall + be + done am / is / are + going to + be + done
过去将来时： would / should / + be +done was / were going to + be +done
现在进行时： am / is / are +being + done
过去进行时： was / were + being + done
现在完成时： have / has + been + done
过去完成时 had + been +done
附加不同时态句型：
一般现在时：
He often hears a boy read English in the morning.→A boy is often heard to read English in the morning.
We must listen to the teacher carefully in class. →The teacher must be listened to carefully (by us) in class.
一般过去时：
We made them five kites last year. →Five kites were made for them (by us) last year. Who could make five kites in a day last week →Who could five kites be made by a day last week
一般将来时：
The boy won’t look after his sister next week. →His sister won’t be looked after (by the boy) next week.
It seems that he is going to finish it in 5 minutes. →It seems that it is going to be finished in 5 minutes.
过去将来时：
He said that Mr Li would take the books away. →He said that the books would be taken away by Mr. Li.
They told me that they were going to plant trees. →I was told that trees were going to be planted.
现在进行时：
The workers are taking care of the fruit trees. →The fruit trees are being taken good care of (by ---).
过去进行时：
The driver was repairing a car. →A car was being repaired (by the driver).
现在完成时：
Have the boys spoken to the old man politely →Has the old man been spoken to politely
过去完成时：
By last term, we had learned eight songs. →By last term, eight songs had been learned (by us).
三．语态转换的条件和方法：
主动语态中谓语动词须为及物动词或相当于及物动词功能的动词短语
例：We should take good care of the baby →The baby should be taken good care of ( by us )
四．转换中的注意事项：
1.主、宾语随语态变化而变换成分和词形（注意代词主、宾格的转换） 找准宾语。
例：She made a kite for her brother -> A kite was made ( by her ) for her brother.
2. 谓语因语态变化而改变结构（即主动或被动结构）
例：They have finished their work -> Their work has been finished（by them）.
3. 变换中时态、句型特点保持统一，但注意人称、数及助动词 (do, does, did 要变为相应的be) 和动词形式的变化。
例：When did the boy break the glass -> When was the glass broken （by the boy）
4. 注意动词短语在变换中保持完整（特别注意短语末尾的介词或副词要保全）
例：We must listen to the teacher carefully in class →The teacher must be listened to carefully in class
5. 含双宾语的主动语态变为被动语态时，如直接宾语（事物）变为被动语态的主语，句中间接宾语（人）前须加介词to 或for (如间接宾语变为被动语态的主语时，不加介词)
例：He will bring me a new stamp -> A new stamp will be brought to me
类似词：tell , show , send , give , lend , pass , throw , write , offer , take , ask , sell , post 等
例：She made her brother a kite. -> A kite was made for her brother.
类似词：make , buy , get , cook , mend , choose , sing , leave , do , steal 等
6. 主动语态中的宾语补足语是不带to 的不定式，因转换而使宾语补足语变为主语补足语，不定式符号to 要恢复。
例：I often hear them sing in the next room . →They are often heard to sing in the next room
类似词：have , make (使役)；see, watch, notice, observe, find, hear, feel, look at, listen to (感官),help 等
（let, suggest 除外）
7.注意定语等成分的疏密关系，不要随意脱节
例：We can’t touch the things on show in the museum →The things on show can’t be touched in the museum
8.注意简单句、并列句、复合句的协调统一
例：They may grow wheat after they harvest the corn and sweet potatoes
→ Wheat may be grown after the corn and sweet potatoes are harvested.
9.被动语态如为特殊问句且动作发出者是who时，句尾须用by 或以by whom开头
例：Who wrote this novel → Who was this novel written by / By whom was this novel written
10.被动语态谓语动词所表示的动作如是人或其他动物做的，加by；如为物质, 常加with.
例：He planted ten trees. → Ten trees were planted by him
The snow covers the tree. →The tree is covered with/by the snow
特殊短语：be made of / from / in , be used as / for / in , be covered with 等结构不用介词by
11.被动语态与系表结构的解析
1）被动语态说明动作，而系表结构说明状态或性质
例：be worn out , get / be lost , be / get married , be worried about , be tired / pleased/ surprised /closed, be interested in , be amazed at 等都属于系表结构
2）被动语态一般不可用very修饰，但可用much修饰；而系表结构可加表程度的（如very）副词修饰。
例：I’ m (very) worried about my lessons now I’ m (much) moved by this moving film
注意汉英表达的差异
1.主动语态不能变为被动语态的情况
A.不及物动词/词组作谓语的主动语态句不会出现被动结构，即本身只有主动式而无被动式（如：come, go, fall, happen, rise, last, arrive, disappear, take place等）。
例：This story happened in the country in the 1980s. The sun rises in the east
B.当宾语为不定式或动名词时
例：She enjoys cooking very much
C.当宾语是主语（某人）身体的某个部位或器官时。
例：I cut my finger just now
D.当宾语是反身代词或相互代词时
例：He taught himself English at the age of 50 We should help each other
E.当谓语动词为静态动词（如have , own , fit , hold<容纳>等）时。
例：I only have a little room, and it can’t hold so many things
F.当宾语起状语作用表示数量、大小或程度时
例：The colour TV set only costs 1,800 yuan
G.由“动词+名词”构成的不可分拆的英语习语（如make faces ; make friends, take place 等） 一般不改
为被动语态
例：The boy made faces in class to make others laugh
H.某些及物动词的宾语表示处所、组织等时不用被动语态
例：He joined the League in 1998
2.主动语态表示被动意义
A．lock, sell, wash, read, write, open, wear, cook, burn, keep, feel等，其主动形式在一些具体场合表被动义 例：This book sells well (这本书卖得好)
B．连系动词（如：look, feel, smell, sound, taste 等）与某些形容词、副词或介词短语构成系表结构时
例：This cake looks beautiful, but it tastes terrible
C．V-ing 作 need , want , require（需要）等的宾语时 例：My bike needs repairing
D．不定式作形容词（如easy, difficult, hard, cheap, important, nice等）的补足语，和句子的主语在意义上是动宾关系时
例：The apples are hard to reach
E．不定式作定语，其逻辑主语又是句子的主语时 例：I have quite a lot of homework to do today
F．too---to---结构中的不定式用主动形式表示被动意义 例：The box is too heavy to carry.
动词的第三人称单数的构成和读音规则
情况 构成方式 读音 例词
一般情况 加-s 清|s|，元/浊|z| works, makes, wears, reads, says
以s, x, ch, sh结尾 加-es -es读|iz| watches, brushes, wishes
以辅音字母+o结尾 加-es 读|z| goes, does
以元音字母+y结尾 加-s 读|z| plays, stays, says
以辅音字母+y结尾 变y为i,加-es 读|z| worry - worries, fly - flies
特例 have – has be - is
动词的现在分词的构成和读音规则
情况 构成方式 读音 例词
一般情况 加-ing 〔 i 〕 singing, doing, playing, carrying
以不发音的e结尾的 去e再加-ing 〔 i 〕 skate-skating, make-making
以发音的e结尾的 直接加-ing 〔 i 〕 be- being
重读闭音节且只以一个辅音字母结尾的 双写辅音字母,再加-ing 〔 i 〕 pat - patting, forget - forgetting,swim-swimming, nod- nodding,cut-cutting
特例 die – dying, lie – lying, tie - tying
规则动词的过去式/过去分词
情况 构成方式 读音 例词
一般情况 加-ed 清|t|，元/浊|d| kicked, answered, cleaned
以e结尾的 直接加-d 清|t|，元/浊|d| dance-danced, tie-tied, live-lived
以辅音字母+y结尾 变y为i,加-ed 读|d| study - studied, try - tried
以元音字母+y结尾 加-ed 读|d| play - played, obey - obeyed
重读闭音节且只以一个辅音字母结尾的 双写辅音字母,再加-ed 清|t|，元/浊|d| top-stopped, plan-planned,prefer-preferred
说明：以|t|和|d|音结尾的加-ed/-d 后-ed读 |id| want - wanted, need - needed