[高一语法]现在分词和动名词用法比较
动词的-ing形式包括现在分词和动名词两种形式。他们的句法功能如下：
从上表可以看出：动词的-ing形式如果作句子的主语或者宾语时，应该是动名词形式；如果作补语或者状语时，应该是现在分词形式。那么作表语或者定语的动名词和现在分词又该怎样区分呢？
I．动名词与现在分词作表语时的比较
1．动名词作表语说明主语的内容，回答 what的问题；现在分词作表语相当于形容词作表语，说明主语的性质、特征等，回答how的问题。如：
①One of the best exercises is swimming．游泳是最好的运动项目之一。
②What pleases him most is bathing in the sea．最使他高兴的事是在海中沐浴。
③The situation both at home and abroad is very in- spiring．国内外的形势都很鼓舞人心。
④The color is pleasing to the eye．颜色悦目。
2．动名词作表语，表语和主语几乎处于同等地位，可以互换位置，其句意不变；现在分词作表语，表语和主语则不能互换位置。如：
①Our work is serving the people．（＝Serving the people is our work．）我们的工作是为人民服务。
②The news was disappointing．那消息令人失望。
3．作表语的现在分词前可以用very，quite，rather， greatly等副词修饰，而动名词则不可以。如：
①What he said was very encouraging．他的话很鼓舞人心。
②Our goal is realizing the four modernizations in the near future．我们的目标是在不久的将来实现四个现代化。
4．现在分词与形容词一样可以和more，the most构成形容词的比较级和最高级，而动名词则不可以。如：
The story is the most fascinating．那个故事最迷人。
5．作表语用的现在分词除了和be连用以外，还可以和其它的系动词连用；而作表语的动名词则通常只能和be连用。如：
① His speech seems inspiring．他的演讲似乎很鼓舞人心。
②His interest is writing for the newspapers．他的爱好是给报社写文章。
6．有些用作表语的现在分词已经形容词化了。常见的有：exciting，moving，inspiring，missing，interesting， disappointing等。
II．动名词与现在分词作定语时的比较
1．动名词作定语时，表示它所修饰的名词的性能和用途，和它所修饰的名词在逻辑上没有主谓关系；现在分词作定语时，表示它所修饰的名词正在进行的动作，和它所修饰的名词在逻辑上有主谓关系，常可以扩展成一个定语从句。如：
a swimming girl ＝a girl who is swimming一个在游泳的姑娘
a walking stick ＝a stick that is used for walking一根拐杖
2．现在分词作定语有时可以后置，而动名词则通常只能放在它所修饰的名词之前。如：
①The girl wearing glasses is one of his students．戴眼镜的那个女孩是他的一个学生。
②I bought some reading materials．我买了一些阅读材料。[高一语法]英语构词法
掌握一些英语构词法，对单词的记忆和理解有很大的帮助，下面笔者列举一些常用的词缀和词根。
一. 常见的前缀
1.表示否定意义的前缀
纯否定前缀 a-, an-, asymmetry（不对称） anhydrousy: （无水的）
dis- dishonest, dislike
in-, ig-, il, im, ir, incapable, inability, ignoble, impossible, immoral, illegal, irregular
ne-, n-, none, neither, never
non-, nonesense
neg-, neglect
un- unable, unemployment
表示错误的意义
male-, mal-, malfunction, maladjustment失调
mis-, mistake, mislead
pseudo-, pseudonym(假名), pseudoscience
3) 表示反动作的意思
de-, defend, demodulation(解调)
dis-, disarm, disconnect
un-, unload, uncover
anti-, ant- antiknock( 防震), antiforeign,(排外的)
contra-, contre-, contro-, contradiction, controflow(逆流)
counter-, counterreaction, counterbalance ob-, oc-, of-, op-, object, oppose, occupy with-, withdraw, withstand
2.表示空间位置，方向关系的前缀
1) a- 表示“在……之上”，“向……” aboard, aside,
2) by- 表示“附近，邻近，边侧” bypath, bypass(弯路)
3)circum-, circu-, 表示“周围，环绕，回转” circumstance, circuit
4) de-, 表示“在下，向下” descend, degrade
5) en-, 表示“在内，进入” encage, enbed(上床)
6) ex-, ec-, es-,表示“外部，外” exit, eclipse, expand, export
7) extra-, 表示“额外” extraction （提取）
8) fore- 表示“在前面” forehead, foreground
9) in-, il-, im-, ir-, 表示“向内，在内，背于”
inland, invade, inside, import
10) inter-, intel-, 表示“在……间，相互”
international, interaction, internet
11) intro-, 表示“向内，在内，内侧”
introduce, introduce
12) medi-, med-, mid-, 表示“中，中间”
Mediterranean, midposition
13) out-, 表示“在上面，在外部，在外”
outline, outside, outward
14) over-, 表示“在上面，在外部，向上”
overlook, overhead, overboard
15) post-, 表示"向后，在后边，次”
postscript(附言)，
16) pre-, 表示"在前”在前面”
prefix, preface, preposition
17) pro-, 表示“在前，向前”
progress, proceed,
18) sub-, suc-, suf-, sug-, sum-, sup-, sur-, sus-, 表示“在下面，下”
subway, submarine, suffix, suppress, supplement
19) super-, sur-, 表示“在…..之上”
superficial, surface, superstructure
20) trans-, 表示“移上，转上，在那一边”
translate, transform, transoceanic
21) under-, 表示“在…..下面，下的”
underline, underground, underwater
22) up-, 表示“向上，向上面，在上”
upward, uphold, uphill(上坡)
3. 表示时间，序列关系的前缀
1) ante-, anti-, 表示“先前，早于，预先”
antecedent, anticipate,
2) ex-, 表示“先，故，旧”
expresident, exhusband
3) fore-, 表示“在前面，先前，前面”
foreward, dorecast, foretell(预言)
4) mid-, medi-, 表示“中，中间”
midnight, midsummer
5) post-"表示“在后，后”
postwar,
6) pre-, pri-, 表示“在前，事先，预先”
preheat, prewar, prehistory
7) pro-, 表示“在前，先，前”
prologue(序幕)，prophet(预言家)
8) re-, 表示“再一次，重新”
retell, rewrite
4. 表示比较程度差别关系的前缀
1) by-, 表示“副，次要的”
byproduct, bywork(副业)
2) extra-,表示“超越，额外”
extraordinary,
3) hyper- 表示“超过，极度”
hypersonic(超声波), hypertesion(高血压)
4) out-,表示“超过，过分”
outdo(超过), outbid(出价过高的人)
5) over-，表示“超过，过度，太”
overeat, overdress, oversleep
6) sub-, suc-, sur-, 表示“低，次，副，亚”
subeditor, subordinate, subtropical(亚热带)
7) super-, sur- 表示“超过”
supernature, superpower, surplus, surpass
8) under-,表示“低劣，低下”
undersize, undergrown, underproduction(生产不足)
9) vice- 表示“副，次”
vicepresident, vicechairman
5. 表示共同，相等意思的前缀
1) com-, cop-, con-, cor-, co- 表示“共同，一起”。
connect, combine, collect, combat, coexist, co-operate
2) syn-, syl-,sym-,表示“同，共，和，类”
symmetry, sympathy, synthesis(合成)
6. 表示整个完全意思的前缀
1) al- 表示“完整，完全” alone, almost,
2) over-表示“完全，全” overall, overflow(充满)
3) pan-表示“全，总，万” panentheism(泛神论)，panorama
7. 表示分离，离开意思的前缀
1) a- ab-, abs-,表示“分离，离开” away, apart, abstract, abstain
2) de- 表示“离去，处去” depart, decolour,
3) dis-, di-, dif-, 表示“分离，离开” divorce, disarm(缴械)
4) ex-, e-, 表示“离开，分离” expel, exclude, expatriate(驱出国外)
5) for- 表示“离开，脱离” forget, forgive
6) 表示“离开” release, resolve
7) 表示“分离，隔离” separate, seduce, select
8. 表示通过，遍及意思的前缀
1) dia-,表示“通过，横过” diameter, diagram,
2) per-, pel-, 表示“通，总，遍” perfect, perform, pervade(浸透)
3) trans-, 表示“横过，贯通” transparent, transmit, transport
9. 表示加强意思的前缀
a-, arouse, ashamed
ad-, adjoin, adhere( 粘着)
10. 表示变换词类作用的前缀
be-, befriend,
en-, enslave, enable, enrich
ad-, ac-, af-, ag-, an-, ap-, ar-, as-, at-, adapt, accord, affix, aggression, arrive, assist, attend, attract, arrange, assign(委派)
11. 表示数量关系的前缀
1) 表示“单一”，“一”
mon-, mon-, monotone(单调)，monopoly, monarch
uni-, un-, uniform, unicellular(单细胞)
2) 表示“二，两，双”
ambi-, ambiguous, amphibian(两栖类)
bi-, bin- bicycle, di-, diode(二级管)，
twi-, twilight
3) 表示“十” deca, deco-, dec- deci-, decade, decimals
4) 表示"百，百分子一"
hecto-, hect-, hectometer,
centi-, centimeter
5) 表示"千，千分子一” kilo-, kilometer
6) 表示"万，万分子一”
myria-, myri-, myriametre
mega-, meg-, megabyte
micro-, microvolt (微伏特)
7) 表示"许多，复，多数”
multi-, mult-, multipmetre (万用表)
poly-, polysyllable,
8) 表示“半，一半”
hemi-, hemisphere
demi-, demiofficial
semi-, semiconductor, semitransparent
pene-, pen-, peninsula
12. 表示特殊意义的前缀
1) arch-, 表示“首位，第一的，主要的” architect, archbishop
2) auto-, 表示“自己，独立，自动” automobile, autobiography
3) bene-, 表示“善，福” benefit
4) eu-, 表示“优，美好” eugenics(优生学)， euphemism
5) male-, mal- 表示“恶，不良” maltreatment, malodor,
6) macro-, 表示“大，宏大” macroscopic(宏观)
7) magni-, 表示“大” magnificent
8) micro-, 表示“微” microscope
13. 表示术语的前缀
1) aud-, 表示“听，声” audience,
2) bio-, 表示“生命，生物” biography(传记)
3) ge-, 表示“地球，大地” geography
4) phon-, 表示“声，音调” phonograph
5) tele-, 表示“远离” television, telephone
二. 常见的后缀
1. 名词后缀
(1) 具有某种职业或动作的人
1) -an, -ain, 表示"……地方的人，精通……的人” American, historian,
2) -al, 表示"具有……职务的人" principal,
3) -ant,-ent, 表示"……者” merchant, agent, servant, student,
4) -ar, 表示"……的人” scholar, liar, peddler
5) -ard, -art, 表示"做……的人” coward, laggard, braggart(夸张者)
6) -arian, 表示"……派别的人， ……主义的人” humanitarian, vegetarian
7) -ary, 表示"从事……的人" secretary, missionary
8) -ant, 表示"具有……职责的人" candidate, graduate
9) -ator, 表示"做……的人" educator, speculator(投机者)
10) -crat, 表示"某种政体，主义的支持者" democrat, bureaucrat
11) -ee, 表示"动作承受者" employee, examinee
12) -eer, 表示"从事于……人" engineer, volunteer
13) -er, 表示"从事某种职业的人, 某地区，地方的人" banker, observer, Londoner, villager
14) -ese, 表示" ……国人，…..地方的人” Japanese, Cantonese
15) -ess, 表示"阴性人称名词， actress, hostess, manageress
16) -eur, 表示"……家” amateur, littérateur
17) -ian, 表示"……地方人，信仰…….教的人，从事……职业的人” Christian, physician(内科医生)， musician
18) -ician, 表示"精通者， ……家，” electrician, magician, technician
19) -icist, 表示"……家， …….者, …….能手” physicist, phoneticist, technicist
20) -ic, 表示"……者，……师" mechanic, critic
21) -ie, 表示"爱，指小" dearie, auntie, lassie(小姑娘)
22) -ier, 表示"从事……职业” cavalier, clothier, brazier(黄铜匠)
23) -ine, ian, 表示"阴性人称" heroine, ballerina
24) -ist, 表示"从事……研究者， 信仰……主义者" pianist, communist, dentist, artist, chemist
25) -ive, 表示"动作者，行为者” native, captive
26) -logist, 表示"……学家，研究者" biologist, geologist(地质学家)
27) -or, 表示"……者" author, doctor, operator,
28) -ster, 表示"做…….事情的人” youngster, gamester(赌徒)，songster
29) -yer, 表示" 从事……职业者” lawyer
(2). 构成，具有抽象名词的含义
1) -acy, 表示"性质，状态，境遇" accuracy, diplomacy
2) -age, 表示"状态，行为，身份及其结果，总称" courage, storage, marriage
3) -al, a) 表示"事物的动作，过程” refusal, arrival, survival, denial, approval
b) 表示具体的事物 manual, signal, editorial, journal
4) -ance, -ence表示"性质，状况，行为，过程，总量，程度” endurance, importance, diligence, difference, obedience
5) -ancy, -ency, 表示"性质，状态，行为，过程" frequency, urgency, efficiency,
6) -bility, 表示"动作，性质，状态" possibility, feasibility,
7) -craft, 表示"工艺，技巧” woodcraft, handicraft, statecraft（治国策）
8) -cracy, 表示"统治，支配" bureaucracy, democracy
9) -cy, 表示"性质，状态，职位，级别" bankruptcy(破产)，supremacy
10) -dom, 表示"等级，领域，状态" freedom, kingdom, wisdom
11) -ery, -ry, 表示"行为，状态，习性" bravery, bribery, rivalry
12) -ety, 表示"性质，状态” variety, dubiety(怀疑)
13) -faction, -facture, 表示"作成，……化，作用" satisfaction, manufacture
14) -hood, 表示"资格，身份, 年纪，状态" childhood, manhood, falsehood
15) -ice, 表示"行为，性质，状态" notice, justice, service
16) -ine, 表示"带有抽象概念" medicine, discipline, famine
17) -ing, 表示"动作的过程，结果" building, writing, learning
18) -ion, -sion, -tion, -ation, -ition, 表示"行为的过程，结果，状况" action, solution, conclusion, destruction, expression, correction
19) -ise, 表示"性质，状态” exercise, merchandise(商业)
20) -ism, 表示"制度，主义，学说，信仰，行为" socialism, criticism, colloquialism, heroism
21) -ity, 表示"性质，状态，程度” purity, reality, ability, calamity
22) -ment, 表示"行为，状态，过程，手段及其结果 treatment, movement, judgment, punishment, argument
23) -mony, 表示"动作的结果，状态" ceremony, testimony
24) -ness, 表示"性质，状态，程度" goodness, kindness, tiredness, friendliness
25) -or, -our, 表示"动作，性质，状态" favor, error,
26) -osity, 表示"动作，状态” curiosity
27) -ship, 表示"情况，性质，技巧，技能及身份，职业” hardship, membership, friendship
28) -th, 表示"动作，性质，过程，状态" depth, wealth, truth, length, growth
29) -tude, 表示"性质，状态，程度" latitude, altitude(海拔)
30) -ure, 表示"行为，结果" exposure, pressure, failure, procedure(手续)，
31) -y, 表示"行为的结果，状态，性质” glory, history, victory, inquiry
(3) 带有场所，地方的含义
1) -age, 表示"住所，地点" village, cottage
2) -ary, 表示"住所，场地" library, granary (谷仓)
3) -ery, ry, 表示"工作场所，饲养所，地点" laundry, nursery, surgery(手术室)
4) -ory, 表示"工作场所，住处" factory, dormitory, laboratory, observatory
(4) 带有学术，科技含义
1) -grapy, 表示"……学，写法” biography, calligraphy, geography
2) -ic, ics, 表示"……学……法" logic, mechanics, optics, electronics
3) -ology, 表示"……学……论” biology, zoology, technology(工艺学)
4) -nomy, 表示"……学……术" astronomy, economy, bionomy(生态学)
5) -ery, 表示"学科，技术" chemistry, cookery, machinery
6) -y, 表示"……学，术，法” photography, philosophy
(5) 表示人和事物的总和，集合含义
1) -age, baggage, tonnage
2) -dom, newspaperdom(新闻界)
3) -hood, neighbourhood, womanhood
4) -ery, cavalry, ministry(内阁)
5) -ure, legislature, judicature
(6) 表示物品和物质名称的含义
1) -ant, ent, solvent, constant
2) -al, signal, pictorial(画报)
3) ar, collar, pillar(石柱)
4) - er, boiler, computer, washer, cooker
5) -ery, drapery(绸缎)
6) -ing, clothing, matting,
7) -ment, instrument, equipment, attachment
(7) 表示“细小”的含义
1) -cle, particle,
2) -cule, molecule(分子)
3) -el, parcel
4) -en, chicken, maiden
5) -et, pocket, ticket
6) -etta, -ette, etto, cigarette, essayette(短文)
7) -kin, napkin
8) -ling, duckling,
9) -let, booklet
10) -y, baby, doggy
3. 形容词后缀
（1） 带有“属性，倾向，相关”的含义
1) -able, -ible, movable, comfortable, applicable, visible, responsible
2) -al, natural, additional, educational
3) -an, ane, urban, suburban, republican
4) -ant, -ent, distant, important, excellent
5) -ar, similar, popular, regular
6) -ary, military, voluntary
7) -ice, -atie, ical, politic, systematic, historic, physical,
8) -ine, masculine, feminine, marine
9) -ing, moving, touching, daring
10) -ish, foolish, bookish, selfish
11) -ive, active, impressive, decisive
12) -ory, satisfactory, compulsory
13) -il, -ile, -eel, fragile, genteel(文雅的)
(2) 表示“相象，类似”的含义
1) -ish, boyish, childish
2) -esque, picturesque
3) -like, manlike, childlike
4) -ly, manly, fatherly, scholarly, motherly
5) -some, troublesome, handsome
6) -y, milky, pasty
(3) 表示“充分的”含义
1) -ful, beautiful, wonderful, helpful, truthful
2) -ous, dangerous, generous, courageous, various
3) -ent, violent,
(4) 表示由某种物质形成，制成或生产的含义
1) -en, wooden, golden, woolen
2) -ous, gaseous
3) -fic, scientific
(5) 表示方向的含义
1) -ern, eastern, western
2) -ward, downward, forward
(6) 表示“倍数”的含义
1) -ble, double, treble
2) ple, triple
3) -fold, twofold, tenfold
(7) 表示“数量关系”的含义
1) -teen, thirteen
2) -ty, fifty
3) -th, fourth, fiftieth
(8) 表示国籍，语种，宗教的含义
1) -an, Roman, European
2) -ese, Chinese,
3) -ish, English, Spanish
(9) 表示“比较程度”的含义
1) -er, greater
2) -ish, reddish, yellowish
3) -est, highest
4) -most, foremost, topmost
(10)其他的含义
-less, 表示否定，countless, stainless, wireless
3. 动词后缀
1) -ize, ise, 表示"做成，变成，……化“ modernize, mechanize, democratize, organize
2) -en, 表示"使成为，引起，使有” quicken, weaken, soften, harden
3) -fy, 表示"使……化, 使成” beautify, purify, intensify, signify, simplify
4) -ish, 表示"使，令” finish, abolish, diminish, establish
5) -ate, 表示“成为……，处理，作用” separate, operate, indicate
4. 副词后缀
1) -ly, possibly, swiftly, simply
2) -ward, -wards, downward, inwards, upward
3) -ways, always, sideways
4) -wise, otherwise, clockwise[高一语法]非谓语动词
动名词
一、动名词的基本特征：表主动的，抽象的，无时间概念。
二、“色普·玛尔格·菲克斯”Cep.marg.fiks“色普·玛尔格·菲克斯”是指后面只能用动名词作宾语的动词。
C—— consider, can't help, can't stand , complete
E—— enjoy, excuse, escape
P—— practise, put off , postpone
M—— miss, mind
A—— avoid, admit , appreciate
R—— risk
G—— give up
F—— finish
I—— imagine
K—— keep
S—— suggest
三、在begin, start, continue等词后，既可以跟不定式，又可以跟动名词。但其后如是：see, understand, realize时，一般用不定式。
四、love, like, hate, prefer之后，用不定式表示某一具体动作或情况（一般在其前加would或should）；用动名词表示一般性动作（如爱好或习惯）。
五、need, demand, want, require在表示“需要”时，用动名词的主动形式表被动，或用不定式的被动形式，但动名词形式更常见。
六、“八大金刚” “八大金刚”是指既可以用动名词作宾语，又可以用不定式作宾语，但意义完全不同的动词。
八大金刚to do sth.doing sth.
remember记住要做…记得做过…
forget忘记了要做…忘记了做过…
try企图做…试着做…
mean想要做…意味着…
stop停下来做…停止做…
go on接着再作别的事继续做…
regret遗憾未做…后悔做了…
agree答应别人的要求(to)赞成别人的意见
七、使用动名词的其他情况
1.在any(some, no)use, any(some, no)good等词后要用动名词There is no use doing sth.=It is no use doing sth. It is no good doing sth. It is of no use doing sth. (=to do sth.)
2.在下列结构中要用动名词 have no business doing sth.（无权做…）feel like doing sth.（想要做…）make a point of doing sth. （认为…是必要的） On doing sth.（一…就…） be worth doing （值得做…）
3.注意：advise (allow, consider, permit, encourage, forbid) sb. to do sth. advise (allow, consider, permit, encourage, forbid) doing sth.
不定式
１．不定式的基本特征：主动的，表将来的，表目的、表具体的We asked them to sing a folk song with us. In order to learn English well , he stayed up far into the night.２．不定式做主语常用于：“It is + 形容词＋不定式”句型It is difficult to learn a foreign language well. It is kind of you to help me with my English. It is necessary for us to do computer studies.
３．不定式作宾补。可以跟不定式作宾补的动词有：1. ask invite encourage tell… 2. make see watch hear have notice observe let（不定式符号要省略）3. help（不定式符号可省略也可以不省略）
４．不定式作状语主要是表目的，有时也表结果。1. in order to, so as to,强调目的。前者位于句首或句中；后者只能位于句中。2. so...as to... , such...as to..., enough to..., too... to... 等结构表结果。3.不定式表结果常和only 连用。He got to the station only to find the train had left.５．不定式作定语，放在被修饰名词的后面。He has a meeting to attend.
分词
●现在分词
一、现在分词的基本特征：表主动的，进行的，表特征二、现在分词的用法
①现在分词作表语，表示主语的特征或和连系动词连用构成进行时态。 The book is interesting. The present situation is more encouraging than ever before. The girl is watering the trees.现在分词作表语一般可以译成“使、令…的”
②现在分词作定语表示所修饰的名词的特征，或修饰名词所做的动作。单个的现在分词作定语必须前置；现在分词短语则后置。现在分词短语作定语，相当于一个定语从句，都可以变成一个相应的定语从句。现在分词作定语所修饰的名词有主谓关系。 boiling water, coming week, setting sun, shining example, running water, walking tractor, waiting car ,sleeping child, flying fish, He is a promising young man. I have a friend living in London. (=I have a friend who lives in London.)
③现在分词作状语，多用来表示伴随、时间、原因、方式等。现在分词作状语它的逻辑主语是主句的主语。如果分词表示的动作发生在谓语动作之前，并且已经完成，用现在分词的完成形式。 They stood by the road, reading books. Having stepped into the cave, Crusoe lit a fire.
④现在分词作宾语补足语，表示动作正在进行，动作是宾语发出的，主动的，多用于使役动词或感官动词之后。 We saw a light burning in the window. I can't get the clock going again.
●过去分词
一、过去分词的基本特征：表被动的、完成的、表状态二、过去分词的用法
①过去分词作表语，表示主语的状态或和连系动词一起表示被动语态（动词应是及物动词）。 The glass is broken. She is quite pleased. The glass was broken by Li Hua.
②过去分词作定语多表示被动意义和完成意义。动作发生在谓语动词之前。其前置和特征与现在分词相同。过去分词作定语所修饰的名词有被动关系或系表关系。 He is a man loved by all. I hate to see letters written in pencil.
③过去分词作状语与现在分词作状语一样，可以表示伴随、时间、原因、方式等。过去分词作状语必须注意它表示的动作是该句主语发不出来的或表示主语的状态。但其逻辑上的主语应是主句的主语。 When heated, water changes into steam.
④过去分词作宾补，多表示宾语的状态或被动意义。动作是宾语发不来的。多用于使役动词、感官动词和like, want, wish, order等表示“希望”“要求”等意义的动词后面。特别注意“have＋宾语＋过去分词”这一结构的用法。 I saw a light burning in the room. I can't get the clock going again. I have to have my hair cut.[高一语法]动词时态的比较和使用
◆◇一般现在时和现在进行时
a.一般现在时：重复发生的习惯性动作和真理。
搭配的时间副词：always often frequently usually sometimes every day every week every month occasionally once a month once a month once a year seldom rarely never
Examples：
She goes shopping every week.
He reads Business News every morning.
He seldom goes dancing.
The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
Susan loves chocolate.
b.表示一种状态或性质
Examples:
This tastes very good.
I don’t believe my eyes.
I need a car.
I hate this music.
c.在讲述一个过去发生的故事时，有时可用一般现在时表示过去发生的一系列事情。-This use is called the“historical present”.如在看图说话一类题时经常用到这一点。
Examples:
一个美国人描述他到中国旅游的经历
My friend and I arrive at the capital air port in Beijing on the morning of May 25 th , 1993. Robert comes to meet with us in a taxi, and we drive to what is to be our apartment for nearly three. week. The drive is culture shock number one. We see people everywhere. Also, Beijing seems to be more modern than its has been written in all the books on China I have read. My friend and I are extremely astonished by the number of bicycles on the road, truly the kingdom of bicycles.
现在进行时：
a.正在进行的动作
常用的时间的动作：(right)now at the(this)moment at present
Examples：
Robert is teaching at this moment。
Mendel is working on the first draft of his essay。
I’m looking for my umbrella right now.
He’s enjoying a holiday right now.
b.表达在现在一段时间内重复发生的动作，但是动作在说话时不一定正在进行。
常用的时间副词：these days Nowadays today this semester/quarter this week/month/year
Examples:
He’s relaxing this week.
He’s working as a librarian this semester.
c.对一类经常发生的事情所表达的强烈情感
常用的时间副词：Always Forever constantly
Examples:
He’s always complaining.(他怎么总是抱怨。)
You’re always dancing.(你怎么总是跳舞，是不是太多了吧。)
◆◇一般现在时和现在完成时
一般现在时：
表达的动作不表明动作从何时开始或已进行了多长时间。
Examples:
Helen and Tom are happily married.
Bruce listens to the news every morning.
现在完成时:
a.现在完成时所表达的动作正在进行,但句子总是表明动作是什么时候开始的。
Examples:
Helen and Tom have been happily married since their wedding day 60 years ago.
Bruce has listened to the news all his life without missing a day.
b.与现在完成时常用的两个词: For and Since
For:表示动作持续的时间。如:for two minutes/weeks/years；for several days/a long time/the past month而在一般现在时不能与之连用。Since:表示动作从何时开始的.如:since 6:00/Apr. 23/last week /the accident
◆◇现在进行时和现在完成进行时
现在进行时：表示一个正在进行的动作,但不表明动作从什么时候开始的。
Examples:
He is waiting over there.
Matthew is study Chinese in Beijing.
现在完成进行时:
a.现在完成进行时表示一个过去开始的并且现在仍在进行的动作。
Examples:
He has been waiting over there since 2:00.
For the last three months, Matthew has been studying Chinese.
b.现在完成进行时表示一个进行了很长时间并且刚刚完成了的动作。
Examples:
Oh, there you are! I have been looking for you everywhere.
c.与现在完成进行时搭配的时间副词:
since, for, all/week/month/year, in the past week/few months/few years, recently, lately
◆◇现在完成时和现在完成进行时
现在完成时：可表明发生动作的具体数字和次数。
Examples:
He has tried to pass the exam twice.
现在完成进行时：不表明发生动作的具体数字和次数。
Examples:
He has been trying to pass the exam all month.
◆◇一般过去时和现在完成时
一般过去时:
a.表示一个过去已经完成的动作。
与之搭配的时间副词:Yesterday, last week, last year, at 5:30
Examples:
Last week I went swimming with Tom.
b.表示在过去一段时间内反复发生的动作,但现在已经结束。
与之搭配的时间副词:last year, last weekend, last month.有时用this weekend, this year
Examples:
I went to Canada twice this year.
I attended a wedding party this weekend.
c.表示已完成的过去的一段活动
Examples:
Our family owned that house for generations. (We don’t own it now.)
现在完成时:
a.表示过去的一个动作但其发生的时间不确切或不知道。
常用的时间副词有:ever, never, yet, still, already
Examples:
Linda still hasn’t finished her assignment.
Stanley has already gotten bored with the life here in Toronto.
Have you ever gone to Paris
b.表示过去的一个动作或反复发生的动作,其发生的时间仍在持续。
常用的时间副词有:this week/weekend/month/year; in the past ten years; in my life; today
Examples:
I have gone to the post office twice today.
Eric has taken several courses this year.
c.表示现在仍在进行的动作,已知动作发生的时间和持续的时间。
Examples:
Our family has owned that house for generations. (We own it now.)
◆◇一般过去时和过去进行时
a.二者的区别在于一般过去进行时表示在过去某个特定时间正在进行的动作。
Examples:
My brother was sleeping at 2:00 yesterday afternoon.
My neighbor’s dog was barking at 3:00 this morning.
b.二者的区别在于一般过去进行时表示在过去同一时间两个同时进行的动作。
与之常用的时间副词:while, as
Examples;
Robert was moving the lawn while Susan was fixing the car.
As Michael was visiting Paris, Robert was teaching English classes in Beijing.
◆◇一般过去时和过去将来时
二者的区别在于过去将来时表示在过去打算做,但是没有做的动作.而一般过去时表示为什么没有做的原因。
Examples:
I was going to become a rock star but I didn’t know the right people in the music business.
◆◇一般过去时和过去完成时
二者的区别在于过去完成时表示在过去的过去所发生的动作。
Examples:
Mary was hungry because she hadn’t eaten breakfast.
Charlie lost his way to the hotel although he had been there a few days earlier.
I realized that I hadn’t eaten a single French Fry since I started my diet.
◆◇过去进行时和过去完成进行时
二者经常混用,其最主要区别在于过去完成进行时表示在过去某一时间“以前”正在所发生或持续的动作.而过去进行时表示在过去某一时间的“前后”正在发生或持续的动作。
Examples:
He had been doing a good job for us until he got a job offer from another company. (He stopped doing a good job for us.)
He was doing a good job for us when another company offered him a job. (Perhaps he stopped–or perhaps he continued.
He took their offer because we hadn’t been paying him so well.
He took their offer because we weren’t paying him very well. (His wage then was not high enough)
◆◇过去完成进行时和过去完成时
二者的区别在于过去完成进行时不能同某一确定的数量或次数连在一起,而过去完成时能够连在一起。
Examples:
过去完成进行时- -He said he had been losing a lot of weight.
过去完成时- -He said he had lost 20 ponds.
◆◇一般现在时和一般将来时
一般现在时在时间和条件从句当中表示刑事处分将来时的动作。
Examples:
As soon as I save enough money I’ll buy a big house.
When he gets back home he will phone a friend in New York.
If it rains tomorrow we will cancel the camping trip.[高一语法]定语从句中的“牛鼻子”
定语从句中的“牛鼻子”就是关联词。初学者如果抓住这个“牛算子”，往往可以避免犯错误。本文将从以下12个方面谈谈如何抓定语从句中关联词这个“牛鼻子”。
1、抓住关系代词。从句中关系副词可由“介词+关系代词”代替，因此，掌握了关系代词，关系副词也就迎刃而解了。如：The boy didn't tell me the classroom where he was
studying句中的where可由in which来取代。
2、从句中不能出现疑问句的形式。如The woman can't tell the day when her son was
born句中的was不能放到when之后。
3、从句中不能出现和关系词重复的词。如：Here is the pen that you lost it
yesterday.句中的it指的就是先行词the pen，应删去it。
4、关系代词应与先行词在数上一致。如The gifts which were sent to Jack were very
expensive.
5、关系代词在从句中可作主语、宾语和定语，关系副词只作状语。如That's the day
when I'll never forget.句中的关联词应是forget的宾语，故不能用when，
应用which或that.
6、可以换用的关系代词。
a.修饰物的关系代词用which或that；如：A bookstore is a store which/that sells
books.
b.修饰人的关系代词常用who,也可用that.如：The comrade who/that visited our class yesterday is our new headmaster.
7、不能换用的关系代词。which不能修饰人;who不能悠物;whose作从句中的定语,既可修饰人,也可修饰物。如:The horse whose windows face south was built last year.
在下列情况下，须用that；
a.先行词为all、little、the、one、everything、something、nothing、anything等不定代词(something)后也可用which;如Is there anything that l can do for you
The finger that l put into my mouth was not the one that l had dipped into
my cup.
b.先行词被序数或形容词最高级修饰时；如:The last place that we visited was
the library.
He is the meat careful boy that l Know.
c.先行词由\"人+物\"构成时。如:He talked of the men and the work that interested him very much.
且that不用于非限制性定语从句之中。如：Tom got the first place, which(不用that) pleased his parents.
8、可以省略的关系代词。当关系代词在从句中作宾语时，往往可以省略。如：The letter (that/which) l received yesterday was from my brother.
9、不可省略的关系代词。
a.在从句中作其他成分的关系代词，如：The boy who is playing on the grass is
Jack's brother.
b.在非限制性定语从句中的关系代词，如That's Lao Li,whom I mentioned to you
the other day.
c.介词位于关系代词之前时.如:This is the house in which Mr Smith once lived.
10、跟关系代词连用的介词可置于关系代词之前,也可置后.如上句也可改为 This is the
house which Mr Smith once lived in.
还要注意：
a.that作介词宾语时，介词位于从句中原来的位置；如:Can you lend me the book that
you were talking about
b.在非限制定语从句中，介词位于关系代词位置，如：Wu Dong, with whom l went
concert, enjoyed it very much.
c.介词是短语动词的固定部分，不可拆开。如：Is this the day that you are
looking for
11、which有时代表前面整个主句所表达的概念。如：The meeting was put off,
which was exactly what we wanted.
12、关系代词as常与such和the same连用。如：I have never seen such a wild dog
as you describe.
I have the same trouble as you have.[高一语法]情态动词
1 情态动词的语法特征
1） 情态动词不能表示正在发生或已经发生的事情，只表示期待或估计某事的发生。
2） 情态动词 除ought 和have 外，后面只能接不带to 的不定式。
3） 情态动词没有人称，数的变化，即情态动词第三人称单数不加-s。
4） 情态动词没有非谓语形式，即没有不定式，分词，等形式。
2 比较can 和be able to
1）can could 表示能力；可能 (过去时用could),
只用于现在式和过去式(could)。be able to可以用于各种时态。
They will be able to tell you the news soon. 他很快就能告诉你消息了。
2）只用be able to
a. 位于助动词后。
b. 情态动词后。
c. 表示过去某时刻动作时。
d. 用于句首表示条件。
e. 表示成功地做了某事时，只能用was/were able to， 不能用could。
He was able to flee Europe before the war broke out.= He managed to flee Europe before the war broke out.
注意：could不表示时态
1）提出委婉的请求，（注意在回答中不可用could）。
--- Could I have the television on
--- Yes, you can. / No, you can't.
2）在否定，疑问句中表示推测或怀疑。
He couldn't be a bad man.
他不大可能是坏人。
3 比较may和might
1） 表示允许或请求；表示没有把握的推测；may 放在句首，表示祝愿。
May God bless you!
He might be at home.
注意：might 表示推测时，不表示时态。只是可能性比may 小。
2） 成语： may/might as well，后面接不带to 的不定式，意为"不妨"。
If that is the case, we may as well try.
典型例题
Peter ___come with us tonight, but he isn't very sure yet.
A. must B. may C. can D. will
答案B. 表可能性只能用may. 此句意可从后半句推出。
4 比较have to和must
1) 两词都是'必须'的意思，have to 表示客观的需要， must 表示说话人主观上的看法，既主观上的必要。
My brother was very ill, so I had to call the doctor in the middle of the night. 我弟弟病得很厉害，我只得半夜里把医生请来。(客观上需要做这件事)
He said that they must work hard. 他说他们必须努力工作。（主观上要做这件事）
2) have to有人称、数、时态的变化，而must只有一种形式。但must 可用于间接引语中表示过去的必要或义务。
He had to look after his sister yesterday.
3 在否定结构中： don't have to表示"不必" mustn't表示"禁止"，
You don't have to tell him about it. 你不一定要把此事告诉他。
You mustn't tell him about it. 你一定不要把这件事告诉他。
5 must表示推测
1) must用在肯定句中表示较有把握的推测，意为"一定"。
2) must表对现在的状态或现在正发生的事情的推测时， must 后面通常接系动词be 的原形或行为动词的进行式。
You have worked hard all day. You must be tired.你辛苦干一整天，一定累了。（对现在情况的推测判断）
He must be working in his office. 他一定在办公室工作呢。
比较：
He must be staying there.
他现在肯定呆在那里。
He must stay there.
他必须呆在那。
3) must 表示对已发生的事情的推测时，must 要接完成式。
I didn't hear the phone. I must have been asleep. 我刚才没有听到电话，我想必是睡着了。
4) must表示对过去某时正发生的事情的推测，must 后面要接不定式的完成进行式。
---Why didn't you answer my phone call
---Well, I must have been sleeping, so I didn't hear it.
5) 否定推测用can't。
If Tom didn't leave here until five o'clock, he can't be home yet. 如果汤姆五点才离开这儿，他此时一定还未到家。
6 表示推测的用法
can, could, may, might, must 皆可表示推测，其用法如下：
1）情态动词+动词原形。
表示对现在或将来的情况的推测，此时动词通常为系动词。
I don't know where she is, she may be in Wuhan.
2）情态动词+动词现在进行时。
表示对现在或将来正在进行的情况进行推测。
At this moment, our teacher must be correcting our exam papers.
这时，我们老师想必在批改试卷。
3）情态动词+动词完成时。
表示对过去情况的推测。
We would have finished this work by the end of next December.
明年十二月底前我们很可能已完成这项工作了。
The road is wet. It must have rained last night.
地是湿的，昨天晚上一定下雨了。
4）情态动词+动词的现在完成进行时。
表示对过去正在发生事情的推测。
Your mother must have been looking for you.
你妈妈一定一直在找你。
5）推测的否定形式，疑问形式用can't, couldn't表示。
Mike can't have found his car, for he came to work by bus this morning.
迈克一定还没有找回他的车，因为早上他是坐公共汽车来上班的。
注意：could, might表示推测时不表示时态，其推测的程度不如can, may。
7 情态动词+ have +过去分词
1) may(might) have + done sth, can (could) have + done sth 表示过去，推测过去时间里可能发生的事情。
Philip may (might) have been hurt seriously in the car accident.
Philip can (could) have been hurt seriously in the car accident.
2) must have +done sth，对过去时间里可能发生的事情的推测，语气较强，具有"肯定"，"谅必"的意思。
---Linda has gone to work, but her bicycle is still here.
---She must have gone by bus.
3) ought to have done sth, should have done sth
本应该做某事，而事实上并没有做。否定句表示"不该做某事而做了"。
You ought to (should) have been more careful in this experiment.
He ought not to have thrown the old clothes away.（事实上已扔了。）
ought to 在语气上比should 要强。
4) needn't have done sth 本没必要做某事
I dressed very warmly for the trip, but I needn't have done so. The weather was hot.
5) would like to have done sth 本打算做某事
I would like to have read the article, but I was very busy then.
8 should 和ought to
should 和ought to 都为"应该"的意思，可用于各种人称。
---Ought he to go
---Yes. I think he ought to.
表示要求，命令时，语气由 should（应该）、had better最好）、must（必须）渐强。
9 had better表示"最好"
had better 相当于一个助动词，它只有一种形式，它后面要跟动词原形。
had better do sth
had better not do sth
It is pretty cold. You'd better put on my coat.
She'd better not play with the dog.
had better have done sth表示与事实相反的结果，意为"本来最好"。
You had better have come earlier.
10 would rather表示"宁愿"
would rather do
would rather not do
would rather… than… 宁愿……而不愿。
还有would sooner, had rather, had sooner都表示"宁愿"、"宁可"的意思。
If I have a choice, I had sooner not continue my studies at this school.
I would rather stay here than go home. = I would stay here rather than go home.
典型例题
----Shall we go skating or stay at home
----Which ___ do
A. do you rather B. would you rather C. will you rather D. should you rather
答案B。本题考查情态动词rather的用法，would rather +do sth 意为"宁愿"，本题为疑问句，would 提前，所以选B。
11 will和would
注意：
1）would like； Would like to do = want to 想要，为固定搭配。
Would you like to go with me
2）Will you… Would you like… 表示肯定含义的请求劝说时，疑问句中一般用some, 而不是any。
Would you like some cake
3）否定结构中用will，一般不用would, won't you是一种委婉语气。
Won't you sit down
12 情态动词的回答方式
问句 肯定回答 否定回答
Need you… Yes, I must. No,I needn't
Must you… /don't have to.
典型例题
1）---Could I borrow your dictionary
---Yes, of course, you____.
A. might B. will C. can D. should
答案C.could表示委婉的语气，并不为时态。答语中of course，表示肯定的语气，允许某人做某事时，用can和 may来表达，不能用could或might。复习： will 与you连用，用来提出要求或下命令。should与you 连用，用来提出劝告。
2）---Shall I tell John about it
---No, you ___. I've told him already.
A. needn't B. wouldn't C. mustn't D. shouldn't
答案A。needn't 不必，不用。 wouldn't 将不, 不会的。 mustn't 禁止、不能。 shouldn't 不应该。本题为不需要，不必的意思，应用needn't。
3）---Don't forget to come to my birthday party tomorrow.
---______.
A. I don't B. I won't C. I can't D. I haven't
答案B. will既可当作情态动词，表请求、建议、也可作为实义动词表"意愿、意志、决心"，本题表示决心，选B。
13 带to 的情态动词
带to 的情态动词有四个：ought to, have to, used to, be to, 如加上have got to ,(=must), be able to，为六个。它们的疑问，否定形式应予以注意：
Do they have to pay their bill before the end of the month
She didn't use to play tennis before she was fourteen.
You ought not to have told her all about it.
Ought he to see a heart specialist at once
ought to 本身作为情态动词使用。其他的词作为实义动词使用，变疑问，否定时，须有do 等助动词协助。
典型例题
Tom ought not to ___ me your secret, but he meant no harm.
A. have told B. tell C. be telling D. having told
答案A。由于后句为过去时，告诉秘密的动作又发生在其前因，此地应用过去完成时，但它在情态动词 ought to 后，所以用have。
14 比较need和dare
这两词既可做实义动词用，又可做情态动词用。作为情态动词，两者都只能用于疑问句，否定句和条件句。 need 作实义动词时后面的不定式必须带to，而dare作实义动词用时, 后面的to 时常可以被省略。
1) 实义动词： need （需要, 要求）
need + n. / to do sth
2) 情态动词： need，只用原形need后加do，否定形式为need not。
Need you go yet
Yes, I must. / No, I needn't.
3) need 的被动含义：need, want, require, worth（形容词）后面接doing也可以表示被动：
need doing = need to be done[高一语法]被动语态
谓语动词的语态表示句子的主语和谓语动作之间的关系-1）当句子的主语是谓语动作的执行者时，主、谓之间的关系称为主动语态；2）当句子的主语是谓语动作的承受者时，主、谓之间的关系称为被动语态。
例如：
I teach English.（主动语态）我教英语。
Our English is taught by him.（被动语态）我们的英语是由他教的。
He speaks English.（主动语态）他说英文。
English is spoken in many countries all over the world.（被动语态）世界许多国家都讲英语。
在被动语态的句子中，谓语部分的结构是be + p.p.（过去分词）。被动语态的句子有时态的变化，这个变化反映在be动词上。也就是说，把一个句子做成被动语态的句子，只需要写出BE动词的所需时态，再加上所给动词的过去分词就行了。当然，这只是指谓语部分而言。我们知道，be动词作为一个独立的谓语动词有自己现在分词（being）和过去分词 （been）。
那么，下面我们来看看be在各种时态中的变化形式：
一般现在时 am / is / are
一般过去时 was / were
一般将来时 shall / will + be
过去将来时 would / should + be
现在进行时 am / is / are + being
过去进行时 was / were + being
现在完成时 have / has + been
过去完成时 had + been
说明：1）以上的八个时态可用于被动式，其它没有列举的时态都不宜用于被动语态的句子中。2）另外，表中被斜线隔开的词表示，供根据具体情况作选择。弄清楚了be在各种时态中的变化形式以后，我们就能很轻松地写出被动语态的各种时态了。我们可看看下面的实例：
English is spoken in many countries all over the world .（一般现在时）
世界上许多国家都讲英文。
Some TV sets for sale in the department store were stolen last night. （一般过去时）
那家商场用来出售的部分电视机昨晚被盗。
He won't be allowed, by his father, to marry Larra. （一般将来时）
他父亲不会让他娶拉拉为妻的。
They would be sent to the army when they finished the training. （过去将来时）
他们结束训练时将被派往部队。
The project is being carried out.（现在进行时）
这个计划正在执行中。
The case was being investigated then.（过去进行时）
那时这案子正在调查中。
This novel has been translated into several languages.
（现在完成时）这本小说已被译成了几种语言。
They said that production costs had been reduced.
（过去完成时）他们说生产成本已经下降了。
一般来说，在我们日常生活中，能用主动语态的时候就尽量不去用被动语态。
只有在下列情况中我们才用被动语态：
1）不清楚动作的执行者是谁, 例如:
The front window in the classroom was broken yesterday. 昨天，教室的前窗被打破了。
The time-table has been changed .时间表已变动了。
We haven't been informed of it .还没有人通知我们这事儿。
2)说话人对宾语的兴趣大于对主语的兴趣（这时可用by引导出动作的执行者），例如：
My TV set is being repaired in the shop. 我的电视机正在这店里修。
These books are written especially for children. 这些书是专门为孩子们写的。
The song was composed by a young worker. 这首歌是一位年青工人谱写的。
3) 不愿意说出动作的执行者，其目的是为了使语言得体、圆滑等。在这种情况下，有时常用一些句式，如"It is said that…"（据说……），"It is reported that …"（据报道……），"It is rumoured that …"（据传言……）等等。例如：
You are requested to make a speech at next meeting. 请您在下次会议上作个发言。
It is said that she is going to be married to a foreigner. 据说她要嫁给一个外国人。
It is rumored that he has been appointed as successor to the president of our company . 据传闻，他已被任命为我们公司总裁的接班人了。
It is generally considered impolite to ask one's age, salary, marriage, etc.. 问别人的年龄、工资、婚姻状况等通常被认为是不礼貌的。
4) 出于修辞的原因，或是说为了更好地安排句子。例如：
The professor came to our school and warmly welcomed by the teachers and students.（句子的后半句用被动式就可以只安排一个主语。）那位教授来到我校并受到师生们的热烈欢迎。
I went to the party and was asked by my friends to do some cooking for them. （同上）我去参加了那个聚会，朋友们还请我为他们烧了几样菜。
The notion is especially opposed to by those who have invested much in the area.
（此句若选those作主语，就会使主语与谓语相距太远而显得句子松散，因为它的定太长了。）这个提议特别遭到了那些在本地区投资很大的人的反对。
这里我们还要进一步谈谈几种特殊的被动结构。
1）关于带情态动词的被动结构
带情态动词的被动结构的固定句式为"情态动词 + be + 过去分词"。也有个别带"to"的情态动词例外，如：ought to和have to ，它们的被动结构就只能在不定式中。例如：
The debt must be paid off before next month. 那笔债务必须在下个月前付清。
The debt has to be paid off before next month. 那笔债务必须在下个月前付清。
Oil can be turned into energy by burning it. 油经过燃烧可变为能原。
You ought to be criticized for your carelessness. 你由于粗心大意应当受到批评。
2) 关于带有两个宾语的主动态变成被动态
我们先来看看"带有两个宾语的主动态句子的结构"，重点看谓语部分 ：
She sent me a novel on my birthday .
主 谓 间接宾语 直接宾语 状语
I allowed him an hour to finish the work .
主 谓 间接宾语 直接宾语 状语
从上面的分析可以看出，两个宾语分别是：直接宾语和间接宾语。将这种主动态的句子变成被动态的句子，可选两个宾语中的任何一个作为被动态句子的主语，而将另一个宾语作为"保留宾语"写入被动态的句中。但有一点要说明，那就是，如果你选直接宾语作"主语"，有时要在被动态句子的"保留宾语"前加上合适的介词。因为这些动词常有两种句式，即：我们可以说give sb sth , send sb sth , buy sb sth ；我们也可以说give sth to sb, send sth to sb , buy sth for sb 。请看下面两种情况的对照：
She sent me a novel on my birthday. (主动)
I was sent a novel on my birthday. (被动)
A novel was sent to me on my birthday. (被动)
My brother bought me a watch yesterday. (主动)
I was bought a watch yesterday. (被动)
A watch was bought for me by my brother yesterday.(被动)
3)关于带有复合宾语的主动态变成被动态
如果将带有复合宾语（既：宾语 + 宾语补足语）的主动态的句子变成被动态的句子，我们只能选择原来句子的宾语作被动态句子的主语；而这时，原句里的宾语补足语现在就变成被动态句子的"主语补足语"了。例如：
The story made us laugh .(宾语补足语)
We were made to laugh by the story. (主语补足语)
They asked me to help them. (宾语补足语)
I was asked to help them. (主语补足语)
We saw them coming over. (宾语补足语)
They were seen coming over. (主语补足语)[高一语法]“It”的用法
一、代词it
1、代替前文提到过的东西或事情，用作人称代词。
This is a new dictionary. I bought it yesterday.
这是一本新词典，我昨天买的。
Tom joined the army last mouth. Do you know about it
汤姆上月入伍了，你知道这事吗？
2、代替指示代词，起着this或that的作用
Is this your car No, it isn’t. 这是你的汽车吗？不是。
What’s that —It’s a video. 那是什么？它是一台录像机。
Whose room is this —It is theirs.这是谁的房间，是他们的。
3、指明某人或某物的身分，还可指不明性别的婴儿
Who’s there It’s me. (It’s John) 谁在那儿？是我。（是约翰）
Go and see who it is that rings. It’s Bill.
去看看是谁来的电话，是比尔。
The Greens have a new baby. It’s lovely.
格林家有一个新生婴儿。它很可爱。
4、指时间，距离，自然现象（天气，气候，明暗）量度，价值等
It’s Sunday today. 今天是星期天。
It’s three months since he came here.
自从他来到这里，已经三个月了。
How far is it to the Great Wall .到长城有多远？
It’s getting dark. 天快黑了。
—How much is the coat —It’s ninety dollars.
这件衣服多少钱？九十美元。
二、引导词it
1、代替不定式短语
It is up to you to decide. 这事要由你决定。
It makes me happy to hear you have recovered.
听说你恢复了健康，这使我很高兴。
2、代替动名词短语
It’s no good smoking. 吸烟没有好处。
It’s worthwhile working the whole night on the problem.
用整夜的时间来研究那个问题是值得的。
3、代替主语从句
It doesn’t matter what you do. 你干什么都没有关系。
It seems that everyone has known the news.
好像大家都知道这个消息。
4、代替不定式短语
I consider it better to be early.
我认为能够早一些更好。
We found it impossible to get there before July .
我们觉得，要在七月以前到达那里是不可能的。
5、代替动名词短语
We thought it no use doing that.
我们认为做那事没有用。
6、代替宾语从句
The teacher makes it clear that everyone should hand in his homework on time .
老师清楚地指出，每个人都应该按时交作业。
三、it在强调结构中
强调句型：It is (was) +被强调部分+ that (who) + 其它
强调主语
It is I who am to blame. 是我该受责怪。
It was your uncle that (who) came yesterday.
昨天来的是你叔叔。
原句的谓语动词如果是现在或将来时态用It is …that(who)如果原句谓语动词是过去时态，则用It was…that(who)。在
强调宾语
It was a new pen that Mother gave me .
母亲给我的是一支新钢笔。
强调地点
It was in the classroom that I left my umbrella.
我把雨伞就落在了教室里。
强调时间
It is at eleven that the train leaves.
火车是在十一点钟离开。
强调方式
It was just as he ordered that I acted.
我正是照他吩咐的那样做的。
强调原因
It was because he was in trouble that I tried my best to help him.
正是因为他处境困难我才尽力帮助他。
强调宾补
It was red that we painted the gate.
我们把门油漆成红的颜色。
It was chairman that they elected him .
他们选他担任的是主席的职务。[高一语法]分词的用法
分词作定语
分词前置
We can see the rising sun.
我们可以看到东升的旭日。
He is a retired worker.
他是位退休的工人。
分词后置 (i分词词组；ii 个别分词如given, left； iii 修饰不定代词 something等)
There was a girl sitting there.
有个女孩坐在那里。
This is the question given.
这是所给的问题。
There is nothing interesting.
没有有趣的东西。
过去分词作定语，与其修饰的词是被动关系，相当于一个被动语态的定语从句。
Most of the people invited to the party were famous scientists.
Most of the artists invited to the party were from South Africa.
典型例题
1) The first textbook ___ for teaching English as a foreign language came out in the 16th century.
A. have written B. to be written C. being written D. written
答案D. 书与写作是被动关系，应用过去分词做定语表被动，相当于定语从句 which is written
2）What's the language ____ in Germany
A. speaking B. spoken C. be spoken D. to speak
答案B. 主语language与谓语动词之间有被动的含义。
spoken是动词speak的过去分词形式，在句中作定语，修饰主语language, spoken 与 language有被动关系。该句可以理解为： What's the language (which is) spoken in German
分词作状语
As I didn't receive any letter from him, I gave him a call.
-> Not receiving any letter from him, I gave him a call.
由于没有收到他的信，我给他打了电话。
If more attention was given, the trees could have grown better.
è Given more attention，the trees could have grown better.
è 假如多给些照顾，那些树会长得更好。
典型例题
1）_____ some officials, Napoleon inspected his army.
A. Followed B. Followed by C. Being followed D. Having been followed
答案B. Napoleon 与follow 之间有被动的含义。being followed除表达被动之外，还有动作正在进行之意。 followed by（被…跟随）。本题可改为:With some officials following, Napoleon inspected his army.
2）There was a terrible noise ___ the sudden burst of light.
A. followed B. following C. to be followed D. being followed
答案B. 由于声音在闪电后，因此为声跟随着光，声音为跟随的发出者，为主动。用现在分词。
3）_______, liquids can be changed into gases.
A. Heating B. To be heated C. Heated D. Heat
答案C. 本题要选一分词作为状语。现在分词表主动，正在进行的；过去分词表被动的，已经完成的。对于液体来说是加热的受动者，是被动的，因而选C。它相当于一个状语从句 When it is heated，…
注意： 选择现在分词还是过去分词，关键看主句的主语。如分词的动作是主句的主语发出，分词就选用现在分词，反之就用过去分词。
(Being) used for a long time, the book looks old.
由于用了很长时间，这本书看上去很旧。
Using the book, I find it useful.
在使用的过程中，我发现这本书很有用。
分词作补语
通常在感官动词和使役动词之后，如：
I found my car missing.
我发现我的车不见了。
I'll have my watch repaired.
我想把我的手表修一下。
分词作表语
现在分词： 表示主动，正在进行
过去分词： 表示被动，已经完成
She looked tired of cooking.
她由于忙着做饭，看上去有些疲倦。
He remained standing beside the table.
他依然站在桌旁。
分词语态
1、通常，现在分词表示主动，过去分词表示被动，例如：
He is the man giving you the money. (= who gave you…)
他就是给你钱的那个人。
He is the man stopped by the car. ( = who was stopped by…)
他就是那个被车拦住的人。
2、不及物动词的过去分词表示动作已经发生：
gone, fallen, retired, grown-up, escaped, faded, returned
例: a well-read person. 一个读过许多书的人
a much-travelled may 一个去过许多地方的人
a burnt-out match 烧完了的火柴
分词的时态
1、与主语动词同时：
Hearing the news, he jumped with joy.
听到这一消息，他高兴得手舞足蹈。
Arriving there, they found the boy dead.
刚一到那儿，他们就发现那男孩死了。
典型例题：
The secretary worked late into the night, ___a long speech for the president.
A. to prepare B. preparing C. prepared D. was preparing
答案B. 此处没有连词，不能选D，否则出现了两个谓语动词worked和was preparing。 只能在B，C中选一个。又因前后两个动作同时发生，且与主语为主动关系，应用现在分词。
2、先于主动词：
While walking in the garden，he hurt his leg.
在花园里散步时他伤了腿。
分词作时间状语，如果先与主动词的动作，且强调先后， 要用having done。
Having finished his homework, he went out. =As he had finished his homework, he went out.
做完作业后，他出去了。
典型例题：
___ a reply, he decided to write again.
A. Not receiving B. Receiving not C. Not having received D. Having not received
答案C. 本题考查分词的时态与分词的否定式。根据题意判断，分词的动作（接信）发生在谓语动词的动作（决心再写信）之前，因此用分词的完成式。分词的否定式的构成为not +分词，故选C。该句可理解为：Because he had not received a reply, he decided to write again.
分词作插入语
其结构是固定的，意思上的主语并不是句子的主语。
generally speaking 一般说来
talking of (speaking of) 说道
strictly speaking 严格的说
judging from 从…判断
all things considered 从整体来看
taking all things into consideration 全面看来
Judging from his face, he must be ill. 从他的脸色看，他一定是病了。
Generally speaking, dogs can run faster than pigs. 总的来说，狗比猪跑得快。 (speaking 并不是dogs 的动作)
连词+分词短语
有时为使分词短语与主句关系更清楚，可在分词前加连词。
连词有： when，while，if though，after, before, as.
但分词的主语和主句的主语必须为同一个，如：
While waiting there, he saw two pretty girls come out of the building.
waiting 和saw 的主语相同。[高一语法]主谓一致
英语句子中，主语的“人称”和“数”要限制，决定谓语动词的形式变化，这就叫“主谓一致”关系。
它通常依据三项原则：
1）语法一致； 2）意义一致； 3）就近一致。
【语法一致原则】
I .主语的“人称”决定谓语动词的形式。e.g.
①I love / She loves music . 我/ 她爱好音乐。
②Are your mother a worker (误)你母亲是工人吗？
Is your mother a worker (正)（主语your mother 是单数第三人称）
II .主语的“数”决定谓语动词的形式。
1.“不可数名词、可数名词单数、单数代词、不定式（短语）、动名词（短语）”或“从句”等做主语，用单数谓语形式。e.g.
①The work is important . 这项工作重要。
②To serve the country is our duty. 为祖国服务是我们的义务。
③How and why he left was a sad story. 他离开的经过和原因是一段伤心的经历。
2. 复数的名词、代词一般接复数谓语形式。e.g.
①The children are taken good care of . 孩子们得到很好的照料。
②They have gone to Chengdu . 他们去成都了。
III. 以“and”或“both… and”连接的并列主语：
1.通常作复数用 。e.g.
①Plastics and rubber never rot . 塑料和橡胶从不腐烂。
②What he says and what he does do not agree. 他言行不一致。
③Both Tom and I are fond of medicine. 我和汤姆都喜欢医学。
2. 如果并列主语指的是“同一个”人（事、物、抽象概念），作单数用。e.g.
①The worker and writer has come . 这位工人作家来了。
②A cart and horse was seen in the distance. 远处能看见有一套马车。
③Truth and honesty is the best policy. 真诚是最好的策略。
3. “and”前、后的单数词语都有“each, every ,many ,a ,no”等修饰时，仍作单数用。e.g.
①Every boy and every girl enjoys equal rights here.这里每个男孩和每个女孩都享有平等权益。
②No teacher and no student is excused from taking part in the activity .没有哪个教师或学生可以免于参加这项活动。
Ⅳ. 主语前、后加表“数、量”等的修饰语时：
1. a）“many a + 单名 ”接单数谓语：“a good (great ) many + 复名”接复数谓语。e.g.
①Many a fine man has died for it . 许多优秀战士为此献出了生命。
②A great many parents were present at the meeting. 许多家长出席了会议。
b）"a / an + 单名+ or two " 大多接单数谓语： "one or two + 复名"接复数谓语。e.g.
①Only a word or two is (are )needed. 只需说一两句。
②One or two reasons were suggested. 提出一两条理由。
c）"a / an + 单名+ and a half"常接单数谓语；“one and a half +复名”多接复数谓语。e.g.
①A year and a half has passed . 一年半已过去了。
②One and a half tons of rice are sold. 已卖了一吨半大米。
d） "more than one + 单名"大多接单数谓语。e.g.
①More than one person was (were )absent . 不止一个人缺席。
"more + 复名+ than one "接复数谓语。e.g.
②More students than one have been there . 不止一个学生去过那儿。
"More than two (three…) +复名 " 接复数谓语。e.g.
③More than one hundred students have attended the concert . 不止一百名学生听了这场音乐会。
2 ，主语前加表示“单位、度量”的短语如“a kind (sort / type / form /pair /cup /glass /piece / load / block / box / handful / quantity / ton / metre /… )of”等时，表示“单位、度量”的这个名词的单复数决定谓语形式。e.g.
a）①There is only a small quantity of paper (books ) left . 只剩下少量的纸（书）了。
②Large quantities of water are needed. 需要大量的水。
b）①This kind of apple is sweet . 这种苹果甜。
②This kind of apples is (are) sweet. （大多依 kind ，作单数用 ）
③These kind(s) of apple(s) are sweet . （总作复数用）
但:Apples of this kind are sweet. （总作复数用）
3. 主语后接“with…”等构成的短语修饰成分时：谓语仍须与这类短语前的“主语”一致。可构成这类短语的常用“with ,along with ,together with ,as well as , but , besides , except ,added to , including , like ,no less than , rather than , more than ”等。e.g.
①A woman with two children has come . 一位妇女带着两个孩子来了。
②I as well as they am ready to help you. 不仅他们，我也愿帮助你。
4. "one of + 复数名词+ 定语从句"：
1）定语从句的先行词通常是这个“复数名词”，因此从句的谓语用复数形式。e.g.
①This is one of the best novels that have appeared this year . 这是今年出版的最佳小说之一。（关系词“that”代“novels”）
②He was one of the boys who were praised . 他是受表扬的男孩之一。
2）若“one”前加“this, the ,the only ”等时，定语从句的关系词指代one，作从句主语时，接单数谓语。e.g.
He was the only one of the boys who was praised .他是男孩中唯一受到表扬的。(关系词who 代 the only one )
【意义一致原则（Notional Concord）】
I. 集合名词做主语时：（参见“名词”部分）
1. 有些通常作复数用（不变词形）。如：“people , police , cattle (牛，牲口)，folk , youth , militia (民兵)”，等。e.g.
The police have caught the murderer .警方已捕获凶手。
2. 有些指“整体”时作单数，指其中的“成员”时作复数（不变词形）。如 "army , audience(听众),class ,club （俱乐部) ,company(公司), committee(委员会) ,crew ,crowd ,staff(员工) ,family ,public ,government ,group ,party ,union ,couple ,population ,team ."等。e.g.
①Our family is a happy one . 我们有个幸福的家庭。
②The family are early risers. 这家人都起得早。
③The public are (is) requested not to litter. 请公众不要乱扔废弃物。
但上述集合名词也可有复数形式。如：families , two classes .等。有些变复数形式后意义不同。如：peoples多个民族。 youths男青年。 folks亲友。
II. 代词做主语时：（参见“代词”部分）
1. 不定代词"each ,one , much, (a)little ,either ,neither ,another ,the other(+单名)"等常作单数用。它们所修饰的主语也作单数。e.g.
①Each of the girls (Each girl) has a new hat . 每个女孩都有顶新帽子。
②Neither plan suits me .③Neither of the plans suits / suit me . 两个计划都不适合我。
2. 下列复合不定代词一般作单数用：“someone ,somebody ,something ,anybody ,anyone ,anything ,everybody ,everyone ,everything ,nobody ,no one ,nothing ”等。e.g.
①Is everybody here 都到齐了吗？
②There was nothing special then. 那时没什么特别情况。
3. 下列不定代词作复数用：“（a）few ,many ,several， both”等。e.g.
①Few (of the guests ) were familiar to us . 没几个（客人）是我们熟识的。
②Both / Both (of ) these are interesting . 两部影片都有趣。
4下列代词须视其“具体所指”来决定单、复数：
1）“what ,which ,who ,whose ”等。e.g.
①Who is your brother 你兄弟是谁？
②Who are League Members .哪些是团员？
2）"all , some ,more ,most ,any ,none ,a lot(of ), lots (of ),"等。e.g.
①All (of the students ) are working hard .（所有的学生）都在用功。
②All (of the paint ) is fine .（这些油漆）都很好。
3）"half(of), plenty (of), the rest(of), (a)part(of), the remainder(of )余下的）"，等。e.g.
①Half of the apples are bad .苹果中有一半是坏的。
②Half of the apple is bad .这只苹果坏了一半。
Ⅲ.“数词”、“数量、单位”等词语做主语时：（参见“数词”部分。）
1. 表示“运算”的数词通常作单数 。e.g.
Ten times four makes(make) forty .+ 乘以四得四十。
2.表“时间、距离、金额、度量衡”等的词语，作“整体”看时作单数用，侧重指“若干单位”时作复数用。e.g.
①Twenty years is not a long time . 二十年光阴，弹指一挥间。
②Twenty years have passed since he left. 他离开已二十个年头了。
3.“分数、百分数”通常依其“具体所指”来决定单、复数。e.g.
①About 40 percent / two-fifths of the books here are (is) worth reading . 这些书中百分之四十/五分之二值得读。
②Only sixty percent / three-fifths of the work was done yesterday .昨天只干完了百分之六十/五分之三的工作。
4. "a number of (许多)/ a variety of (各式各样) "+复数名词，常作复数用。e.g.
①A number of students in this class are (is) from Sichuan . 这个班有不少同学来自四川。
②There are a variety of toys in this shop.这家商店有各种各样的玩具。
但是，“the number(数目)/ the variety(种类)”+ of + 复数名词，作单数。e.g.
①The number of students in this college has doubled . 这所大学的学生人数翻了一番。
②The variety of goods in this shop is rich . 这家商店货物品种丰富。
Ⅳ.单、复数同形或易混的词做主语时：（参见“名词”部分）
1.以“-ics”结尾的学科名词：指教育、科研的某一学科，作单数。e.g.
Mathematics seems easy to me .我似乎觉得数学不难。
但是，表“具体的学业、活动”等时，多用作复数。e.g.
①Her mathematics are weak . 她数学差。（指“学业成绩、能力”）
②What are your politics 你的政治观点如何？
2. “works工厂，means方法，series系列，species物种，aircraft飞机”等名词单、复数同形，要从上下文判断其具体意义来决定单、复数。e.g.
①This works was(These works were)built two years ago . 这（几）家工厂是两年前修建的。
②Every means has (All means have) been tried. 各种办法都试过了。
这类名词通常还有“fish ,deer ,sheep ,headquarters (总部驻地),bellows(风箱), plastics, gallows (绞架), manners(礼貌) ,whereabouts (行踪), ”等。（但news（消息）是不可数名词，通常只作单数用。）
Ⅴ. "the + 形容词/分词"做主语时：
1. 指“一类”人或事物时，常用作复数用。e.g.
①The English speak English. 英国人讲英语。
②The rejected were heaped in the corner. 废品堆在角落里。
2.指“某一个”人，或“抽象的”事物时，作单数用。e.g.
①The deceased was his father . 去世的是他父亲。
②The agreeable is not always the useful. 好看的不一定中用。
③The new and progressive always wins over the old. 新生、进步的事物总是要战胜旧的东西。
Ⅵ.专用名词做主语时：
1.“书名、剧名、报刊名、国家名”等通常作单数用。e.g.
①The United States was founded in 1776. 美国成立于1776年。
②The Arabian Nights is very interesting. 《天方夜谭》很有趣。
2.“书刊名”有时作单数或复数两可，尤其是编成集子的书。e.g.
Dickens' American Notes were (was ) published in 1842 .
狄更斯所著的《美国笔记》出版于1842年。
Ⅶ“what等引导的从句”做主语时：
1. 大多作单数用。e.g.
①What we need is more practice . 我们需要的是更多的实践。
②What he says doesn't agree with what he does. 他言行不一致。
2.若从句是含复数意义的并列结构、或“表语”是复数时，谓语动词用单数或复数两可。e.g.
①What you say and think is /are no business of mine . 你怎么说以及怎么想，不关我的事。
②What he bought was /were some books. 他所买的是几本书。
【就近一致原则（Proximity）】
也称“邻近原则”，即：谓语与靠近的名词、代词（有时不一定是主语）在“人称、数”上一致。
I.在正式文体中：
1.由下列词语连接的并列主语："or; either …or；nor; neither…or；whether…or；not…but; not only…but also" ; 等。e.g.
①What he does or what he says does not concern me . 他的行为或言谈都与我无关。
②Neither you nor I am wrong. 你和我都没错。
③Not you but your father is to blame. 不是你，而是你父亲该受责备。
④Not only you hut(also) he is wrong .不仅你错了，他也错了。
2. 在倒装句中：谓语可与后面第一个主语一致。e.g.
①In the distance was heard the clapping of hands and the shouts of the people . 在远处，能听见鼓掌声和人们的呼喊声。
②There is (are) a pen and some books on the desk .桌上有一支钢笔和几本书。
II. 非正式文体中：
有时依“就近一致原则”，但也可依“意义一致原则”或严格地依“语法一致原则”。e.g.
Neither she nor I were there (意义一致) 我和他当时都不在那儿。（非正式）
Neither she nor I was there .（就近一致）（译文同上句）（正式）
但是，如果依“就近一致原则”而与其他两项原则相矛盾时，则常常认为是不太合符规范的。e.g.
No one except his own supporters agree with him .仅他自己的支持者同意他的意见。（依“就近”和“意义”一致的原则；但语法上，“No one ”才是主语，谓语要改成“agrees”。“写作中”一般要依“语法一致”原则。[高一语法]直接引语和间接引语转换要注意的几点
在直接引语向间接引语转换的过程中，不仅要进行句式上的转换，而且常常要在时间、地点、人称等方面作相应的转换。本文就高一所学直接引语转换间接引语用法归纳如下：
1．若直接引语为陈述句，则间接引语需改为以that所引导的宾语从句。如：
The man said，“I often come t owork very early”．→The man said that he often came to work very early．
2．若直接引语为祈使句，则间接引语需改为动词不定式形式，原动词say也要改为可以带动词不定式作宾语补足语的动词如tell，ask，order，advise等。如：
1）Father said to me，“look after your sister．”→Father told me to look
after my sister．
2）Mrs Black said to the students angrily，“Don’t make any noise again．”
→Mrs Black ordered the students not to make any noise again．
3．若直接引语为一般疑问句，则间接引语改为以if，whether引导的宾语从句，原动词say也要改为ask。如：
1）“Do you usually do some washing on Sundays？”Joan said to me．→Joan asked me if／whether I usually did some washing on Sundays．
2）The driver said to the woman，“Could you tell me the way to the bus station？”→The driver asked the woman whether／if she could tell him the way to the bus station．
4．如果直接引语是特殊疑问句，则间接引语要改为以这个特殊疑问词为连接代词或连接副词所引导的宾语从句。
1）“What are you going to do next Friday afternoon？”Han Mei asked me．
→Han Mei asked me what I was going to do the next Friday afternoon．
2）The boy asked，“How do you know the rule of that game？”→The boy asked
how I knew the rule of that game．
5．如果直接引语是选择疑问句，则间接引语要根据选择疑问句的类型来确定：属于一般疑问句开头的选择疑问句，间接引语改为以if或whether引导的宾语从句；属于特殊疑问句开头的选择疑问句，间接引语则要改为以该疑问词引导的宾语从句。如：
1）“Will you go to the museum this weekend or next weekend？”Zhang Yin asked me．→Zhang Yin asked me whether／if I would go to the museum this weekend．
2）“Which bus shall I take to the Xinlong Department Store，No.2 bus or No.3 bus？”The villager asked the policeman．→The villager asked the policeman which bus she should take to the Xinlong Department Store．
