篇章结构
句子是最高一层的语法单位,又是语言表达的基本单位。句法是个语法范畴,它属于语言的组织规律,而章法则属于语言使用的范畴,或者说是言语的规律。从词素、词、词组、分句、句子讲到篇章就把语言的结构和语言的使用都概括进去了。现在我们来看一看英语的篇章是怎样构成的。
句子、语段、语篇
英语的篇章(Disscourse),包括口头形式和书面形式,通常是由句子和语段(Sentence Group)构成的,即所谓“积句而成章,积章而成篇”。从英语的实际使用情况来看,人们总是以句子为话语的基本单位,围绕一定的话题,组成大大小小的言语片断来完成思想表达任务。在这里,确实存在着由句到篇的一种过渡形式——语段。
语段,又叫句群,是由句子组成的语言表达单位,它是句子和语篇之间的中间层次。我们知道,句子在一定的语言环境中能够单独地使用,能够单独地表达相对完整的思想。但是,要表达多方面的、比较复杂的思想,往往需要把几个句子组织起来,结成更大的言语片段,以表达“一层”的意思。因此,语段是一个相对独立的较大语义单位,它既与上下语段相关联,又与上下语段相区别。正是许多这样的语段相结合,才构成了语篇。所以,语段是建筑在逻辑思维基础上的表意“层次”。
构成语段的各个句子都必须围绕一个中心话题,从而具有向心的作用。这样的一群句子,通过一定的逻辑顺序组织起来,便成为一个较大的语义整体。因此,作为一个思想表达单位,语段所表达的思想并不是各句意义的简单总和,而是比各句意义更高一层的有机组合。例如:
…True, in the woods Wolf was as brave as an honorable dog should be;but what dog is ever brave enough to stand firm against the terrors of a woman's tongue?As soon as Wolf entered the house,his head bent low,his tail lay on the ground or curled between his legs.He went around the house with a guilty look, watching Dame Van Winkle out of the corner of his eye,ready to run from the room at the slightest sign of her displeasure.
其实,那条名叫“狼”的狗在林中也具有一条体面的狗所应有的勇气,可是哪条狗的勇气又能挡得住可怕的女人的舌头呢?“狼”只要一走进家里立刻就垂头丧气,它的尾巴不是拖在地上,就是夹在腿间。它像作贼心虚似地在屋里转来转去,从眼角里偷偷地瞟着凡·温克尔太太,只要见她稍一恼怒便随时准备向门外奔去。
这一语段的中心意思是描写“狼”如何害怕女主人。这个语段由三个完全句组成。第一句是通过一个表示转折的并列结构,说明“狼”在树林里和在家里的表现完全不同,意思没有出来。二、三两句补充了第一句的意思,从夹着尾巴,低着头回家,到偷偷摸摸在屋里转来转去,不时偷看女主人,随时准备逃出去的情态,使第一句的意思具体化了。这样,三句结合一起就充分勾画出“狼”害怕女主人的神情,这些意义只有通过这三个句子的有机组合才能表达出来。有时,同样的句子,只是因为句与句之间的结合方式不同,以致语段所表达的意思也不同。试比较下面两组句子的意义:
(1)Some of the teachers are recruited from foreign countries.They know their respective fields well. Their courses are well planned and efficiently taught.Yet their way of living is different from ours.
有些教师是从外国聘来的。他们熟习自己的专业。所开课程富有计划性,教学效果良好。然而他们的生活方式跟我们不一样。
(2) Some of the teachers are recuited from foreign countries.Their way of living is different from ours.Yet they know their respective fields well,and their courses are well planned and efficiently taught.
有些教师是从外国聘来的。他们的生活方式跟我们不一样。然而他们熟习自已的专业,所开课程富有计划性,教学效果良好。
在上面两个语段中,句子是基本相同的,但句子的结合方式不同,从而意义重心也不同。语段(1)的意义重心在于指出外籍教师的生活方式与我们不同;语段(2)的意义重心则在于指出外籍教师的专业水平较高和教学质量较好。语段(1)通常用于为外籍教师的某些不满情绪寻找原因的上下文中,而语段(2)则通常用于为聘请外籍教师提出理由的上下文中。
要注意语段和段落(Paragraph)之间的区别。语段是篇章结构的中间层次;段落是在某些语体(如记叙文和论说文)中比语段更大的意义单位。较小的段落可以只包括一个语段,但是一个段落通常是由几个语段构成的。那末,能不能说,篇章是由句子、语段、段落构成的呢?这就不可一概而论,因为有的语篇能分段落,有的不能分段落。比如对话通常不分段落,但是一个较长的对话可分为若干语段。戏剧分场景,在一个场景里不分段落,但可根据情节发展划分语段。有些小说体,分章不分段,但可划分语段。拿我们的汉语来说,古汉语有的就在形式上不分段落,但是古汉语照样可以分语段,并在语段的基础上结合成为更大的篇章层次。可见,段落并不是从旬到篇必不可少的中间层次,而语段却是这样的中间层次。因此,当我们讲“语段”的时候,不要把它和“段落”混为一谈;当我们讲“语篇”的时候,也不要把“语篇”和“段落”对立起来,因为一个充分发展的段落本身也就是语篇。例如:
(1)Learning a foreign language has changed.(2)Not so long ago students would sit with pens in hand,writing the basic forms of a language,learning structures they would never be able to speak.(3)In that same classroom today,pens and notebooks have been put away.(4)The spoken sounds of a foreign tongue fill the room.(5) Today the last skill learned-writing a foreign language-comes as a natural and possible part of the total language-learning process.(6) Yet, just a few years ago,the last skill learned was the first skill mastered today-speaking a foreign tongue.
学习外语的方法改变了。不久以前,学生们还是坐在教室里拿着钢笔书写外语的基本形式,学习那些从来也上不了口的语言结构。而今天,在相同的教室里,钢笔和笔记本已经束之高阁了。满屋回荡着讲外语的声音。现在,写的技能是作为整个外语学习过程的最后一个环节自然而然地习得的。可是,若干年以前,那最后习得的却是今天最先习得的技能——讲外语。
这个段落包括三个语段:第一个语段只有一句话(句1),它是本段的主题,“学习外语的方法改变了”。第二、三两语段围绕主题分别表达两层意思。第二语段(句2至句4)对比过去和现在外语课教学方法的不同;第三语段(句5至句6)对比过去和现在外语教学效果的不同。三个语段紧紧围绕“外语教学”这个主题,先总提,后分述,句句相接,层层相连,从而构成语篇的统一性(Uni-ty)、连贯性(Coherence)和粘着性(Cohesion)。
语段中的句际关系
从逻辑意义来看,语段的句际关系可分为平列、顺序、层递、转折、总分、解释、因果等关系。构成语段的各个句子之间有时可以包含一种以上的句际关系,分述如下:
1)平列关系
平列关系指句与句之间处于平等并立的地位,互不相属,只是组合起来,共同说明一个话题。按平列关系组织起来的句群,在次序上并不固定,如果局部改变句子的相互位置并不改变整个语段的意义。例如:
All the people on our block give us trouble.Mrs Brown calls the police whenever we go to play ball on the street.Mrs Johnson complains that skateboarding makes too much noise.If we happen to stray into Mr Hardy's yard, he yells at us.
街区里所有的人都跟我们过不去:每逢我们在街上踢球,布朗太太就打电话叫警察;我们一玩溜冰车,约翰逊太太就抱怨太吵闹;如果我们偶尔误入哈代先生家的院子,他就对我们大声呵斥。
在这个语段中,除了第一句为主题句外,其余三句是一种平列关系,它们处在同一层次上,共同说明第一句所表达的意思。这三个平列的句子与第一句处于一种解释和被解释的关系,从而与后者不在同一层次上。
2)顺序关系
顺序关系指构成语段的各个句子只能按事物的发展过程由先而后地顺序排列,不可以随便改动次序。按这种关系组织起来的句群通常表达一个过程的时间顺序或者描述固定的操作程序等。例如下面一个选段说明如何设法把掉进坑里的彼得拉上来的过程:
(1) We had a hard time getting Peter out of the hole he had fallen into.(2) First, we made a rope by linking our belts together.(3)Then we lowered it to Peter,telling him to grasp the end.(4) After he had hold of the rope,we began to pull him slowly out of the hole.(5) As he came up,no one dared to speak a word.(6) Fi-nally,we could grasp his arms,and, with a sigh of relief,we pulled him out onto the grassy bank.
我们费了九牛二虎之力总算把彼得从他坠入其中的洞里搭救上来。首先,我们用各人的裤带结成一根绳子,把绳子放到洞里,叫彼得抓住绳头。当他抓住绳子以后,我们便缓慢地把他往上拉。这时,我们都提心吊胆,谁也不敢吭一声。最后,我们能够抓住他的手臂了,这才松了一口气,终于把彼得拉到洞口的草地上。
本段第一句是点题;第二至第六句是一种顺序关系。这五个句子结合起来共同说明第一句的内容,从而与第一句不在一个层次上。
3)层递关系
层递关系也是一种固定的顺序关系。所不同的是按这种关系组织起来的句群是按语义的轻重、认识的深浅作由轻到重、由浅入深的排列。例如:
…I seem to be suffering all the illnesses imaginable: insomnia,headache,backache,indigestion,constipation and pains in the stomach.To make things still worse,I've caught a cold, I've got a sore throat,and I'm constantly sneezing and coughing. To crown it all,I had an accident the other day,hurt my right shoulder,leg and knee, and nearly broke my neck.If I take a long walk,I get short of breath.In fact,I feel more dead than alive.
我患了一切可以想象到的疾病:失眠、头痛、背痛、腹胀、便秘、胃痛。更有甚者,我受了凉,喉咙痛,不断地打喷嚏,咳嗽。最糟糕的是,前些日子,我出了事故,伤了右肩,右腿和右膝,差点折断了脖子。现在我一动步就气喘。真是,与其说我还活着,不如说是死了。
4)转折关系
转折关系指句与句之间存在着意义的转折。按这种关系组织起来的句群通常表达“对比”、“对照”的意思。例如:
Aeroplanes have the reputation of deing dangerous and even hardened travellers are intimidated by them.They also have the grave disadvantage of being the most expensive form of transport.But nothing can match them for speed and comfort.
乘飞机向来以危险著称,甚至老资格的旅行家也常为之担惊受怕。飞机还有一个严重的不利条件,它是最昂贵的运输工具。然而飞机既便捷又舒适,这却是其他交通工具所望尘莫及的。
5)总分关系
总分关系指前边的句子陈述两个或两个以上的情况,后边的句子紧接着分别对它们加以说明。用这种方式组织起来的句群能够前后呼应,条分缕析。例如:
A business letter may be private or official.In a private business letter,the writer is speaking for himself or on his own behalf.In official business letters the writer acts in his capacity as an officer in a business or some other kind of organization;usually,he does not speak on his own behalf but on behalf of the organization he represents…
商业函件可以由私人出面,也可由公家出面。在以私人出面的商业函件中,写信人是代表他个人说话。在以公家出面的商业函件中,写信人是以商号或其他机构的一个成员身份行事,通常不是代表个人而代表一个机构说话。
6)解释关系
解释关系指后面的句子是对前面的句子作解释、引申、例证,使意义更加明了、具体。例如:
Punctuality is a necessary habit in all public affairs of a civilized society.Without it,nothing could ever be brought to a conclusion;
everything would be in a state of chaos.在文明社会的一切公务中,遵守时间是必不可少的习惯。如果没有这种习惯,那就任何事情也办不成,一切都会陷于混乱。
这是两个句子之间的解释关系,第一句讲遵守时间的重要性,第二句解释为什么遵守时间如此重要。还有一种情况是,一个句子受到后面一系列句子的解释。前面讲到平列关系和顺序关系时已涉及这方面的问题,下面再举一例:
Americans make no distinction in greeting friends,acquaintances,or superiors.When Americans see close friends,casual acquaintances,or even someone they know only by sight,they are likely to say“Hi”in all cases.This does not mean that they have no more regard for friends than for casual acquaitances. It only means that “Hi” serves as a greeting for both.
美国人见到朋友、熟人或尊长时,打招呼的方式没有区别。他们见到亲密朋友或者泛泛之交甚至一面之交,可能都是喊一声“嗨”。这并不意味着美国人对于亲密朋友和泛泛之交不辨亲疏。这仅说明,“嗨”,作为一种招呼语,既可用于亲密朋友,也可用于泛泛之交。本段共四句,第一句为主题句,随后三句是对主题句加以解释和说明。
7)因果关系
因果关系也是一种解释关系,但不能反过来说,解释关系都是因果关系。上面所举的例子就不是因果关系。所以因果关系可以说是一种特殊的解释关系。按因果关系组成的句群有两种排列方式:一种是从因到果。例如:
Unfortunately,the Cascade Mountains and the Sierra Nevada,so close to the west coast, catch the largest share of the rain off the Pacific Ocean before it can go further inland. As a result,there is too little rain for almost the whole western half of the United States,which lies in the“rain shadow of the mountains.In a great part of that territory,therefore, farmers must depend on irrigation water from the snows of rains that are trapped by the mountains.
不幸的是,喀斯喀特山脉和内华达山脉太贴近西海岸了,截住了来自太平洋的大部分雨水,使它无法进入内陆。结果,美国的整个西半边几乎处在遮掉雨水的大山脉的“雨影”之下,雨水极少。因此这个地区大部分地方的农民必须靠高山峻岭积存的雨雪供灌溉之用。另一种是从果到因。例如:
The old lady was glad to be back at the block of flats where she lived. Her shopping had tired her and her basket had grown heavier with every step of the way home.
那老太谢天谢地总算回到住所。上街买东西弄得她精疲力尽,在回家的路上,越走篮子越沉重。又例如:
The quiet life of the country has never appealed to me.City born and city bred,I have always regarded the country as something you look at through a train window or something you occasionally visit during the week-end.
安静的乡村生活对于我从来没有吸引力。我生长在城市,总是认为乡村不过是透过火车窗子一眼掠过的东西或者是偶尔在周末去参观的地方。
从语段到语篇
上一节所讲的语段的句际关系通常也适用于语段和语段之间的关系。构成语篇的各个语段可以是不同类型的句群,但它们都必须围绕语篇的中心话题,而不可游离于中心话题以外。例如:
(1)The first invention of mankind was the wheel.(2)Although no wheel forms are found in nature,undoubtedly the earliest “wheels” were smooth logs which were used for moving weights over the earth's surface.(3) No one recorded who he was or when it happened,but when the“first inventor” placed a wheel on an axle,mankind began to roll from one place to another.(4)Records of this type of wheel have been found among Egyptian relics dating back to 2000 B. C.and earlier Chinese civilizations are credited with independent invention of the same mechanism.∥( 5) The wheel so fascinated the mind of man that he has spent centuries building machines around it;yet in over 4000 years he has not changed its basic design.(6) All about us we see the spinning shafts,gears,flywheels,pulleys,and rotors which are the descendents of the first wheel.(7) The roaring propeller of an aircraft engine,the whirling wheel of a giant steam turbine,and the hairspring of a tiny watch are examples of the rotary motion which characterizes our mechanical world.(8)It is hard to conceive of continuous motion without the wheel.
轮子是人类的最早发明。尽管在自然界未曾发现天然的轮状物,可是毫无疑问,最早的“轮子”就是那些在地面上搬运重物的光滑的圆木。究竟谁是那最早的发明家以及什么时候开始有这项发明,史书都无所记载,但是可以肯定,当那最早的发明家把轮子驾上车轴的时候,人类就开始到处转动了。轮子的记载已在古埃及遗迹中有所发现,可以追溯到公元前2000年;在早期的中国文明中也曾独立发明过类似的机械装置。轮子深深扎根于人类的思想,以致几百年来人类总是围绕着轮子建造机器。然而过去4000多年来,人类并没有改变轮子的基本式样。在我们周围看到的纺纱轴、齿轮、飞轮、滑轮和转子,无一不是第一代轮子的后裔。轰鸣的飞机引擎推进器、飞速的蒸汽涡轮机轮盘以至小型手表里的游丝都代表着一种旋转运动,这是当今机械领域的特征。如果没有轮子,便很难想象会有继续不断的旋转运动。
这篇文字分为两个语段:句(1)至句(4)为第一语段;句(5)至句(8)为第二语段。第一语段的中心意思是“轮子是人类的最早发明”;第二语段的中心意思是“轮子的发明对后世的深远影响”。两个语段紧紧围绕“轮子”这一中心话题做文章,句句提到“轮子”;关键词wheel的重复使用成为句与句之间、语段和语段之间的重要连接纽带,从而突出地表现了这一语篇的统一性、连贯性和粘着性。
当语段进入语篇时,各个语段之间存在着不同的逻辑意义关系。比如上面所讲的两个语段之间就是一种解释和引申的关系。后一语段引申了前一语段的意思。又例如在下列语篇中各个语段之间既有解释关系,又有平列关系:
(1) A number of dictionaries are inappropriate for foreign students ∥(2)The first one is the small pocket dictionary.(3) Dictionaries of this type are usually only abridgements of earlier,more comprehensive dictionaries.(4) The definitions found in a pocket dictionary are usually rather sketchy, and few or no example sentencs are given to help the foreign student understand how the word is actually used in a sentence.∥(5) Equally inadequate is the bilingual dictionary.(6) This type of dictionary is often based on the idea of making word-for-word translations,a notion which shows no under-standing of the idiomatic nature of all languages.(7) Moreover,bilingual dictionaries are often hastily and sloppily compiled,as well as hopelessly out of date even before they are published.
有许多词典对于外国学生是不适用的。其中之一就是袖珍词典。这种词典通常仅是较大词典的节本,释义简略,例句很少或者根本没有例句,从而外国学生无法了解一个词在句中是怎样使用的。同样不中用的是双语词典。这种词典通常建立在逐字直译的译文基础上,忽略了一切语言都具有习语性质。再者,双语词典常常是匆忙地、草率地编出的,而且不等出版就已经过时了。
这篇文字共有三个语段:第一个语段(句1)是主题句;第二个语段(句2至句4)和第三个语段(句5至句7)是一种平列关系,它们共同解释和引申第一语段的意义,从而二、三两语段与第一语段是一种解释和被解释的关系。又例如下面一段关于美国作家杰克·伦敦成名之前的经历的文字:
(1) Jack London had a very hard and difficult life.∥(2) He was born in San Francisco on January 12,1876.(3) He grew up as a street urchin,and lived on the fringes of society until he was seventeen.∥(4) In 1893 he became a sailor.(5) For the next four years he fought and worked his way around the world.( 6) He learned the law of the survival of the strong and the death of the weak.(7) He bummed his wsy across the United States, often begging his food from door to door.∥(8) When he was twenty-one he decided to try and get an education,but after a few months he left school and went off to take part in the Klondyke Gold Rush in 1897.(9) He hiked over the famous Chilkoot Pass In north western Canada,got the scurvy and came back empty-handed.∥(10) Two years later he sold his first story to the Overland Monthly in 1899.(11)From that time on he made his living by writing,though at first his manuscripts were often returned by publishers,and he was sometimes without money.
杰克,伦敦生活极其艰舍。他在1876年1月12日生于旧金山,长大成了街头顽童,生活在社会最下层直到17岁。1893年杰克·伦敦当了水手,在随后4年中他努力拼搏,漂流世界各地,深深体会弱肉强食的法则。在美国,他到处流浪,常常挨户乞讨。21岁时,他决心要受点教育但不到数月他又于1897年辍学,参加克朗代克淘金者的行列。他徒步翻越加拿大西北部的著名奇尔科特山口,得了坏血症,旋又两手空空地回到美国。两年以后,即1899年,他把第一篇故事卖给了“大陆月刊”,从那以后便以写作为生,尽管一开始常遭退稿,身边一文不名。
这一篇文字共有五个语段:第一语段为主题句,第二、三、四、五语段都是按时间顺序排列,从而语段之间是一种顺序关系。又例如:
(1)Some of the older people in the United States face a number of serious problems.∥(2) For one thing,more than ten percent of all“senior citizens”in the United States are extremely poor.(3) As a matter of fact,recent statistics suggest that approximately one-seventh of all people over the age of sixty-five live below the poverty level.∥(4) Aged people also have more health problems than younger people.∥(5) A third area for concern stems from the fact that public transportation has not been designed with old people in mind;their activities are often limited to whatever is within walking distance.∥ (6) And finally,there is the separation from family,which causes loneliness.(7) Many older people live by themselves (this is particularly true of widows and divorced women).∥ (8)And then there are the“forgotten five percet,”the older people who have been institutionalized—that is,sent to“old age homes”(sometimes called“nursing homes”) by families who either cannot or will not take care of them.
在美国,有些老年人面临许多严重的问题。第一,有百分之十以上的美国“高龄公民”极其贫困。最新的统计数字表明,在65岁以上的人群中,实际上有七分之一的人生活在贫困线以下。第二,老年人比年轻人有更多的健康问题。第三桩值得关心的事是公共交通的设计没有考虑到老年人的需要,以致老年人的活动范围往往只限于步行所能达到的距离。最后就是老年人与家庭分离的问题,引起老年人的孤独感。许多老年人都是单独生活(寡妇和离了婚的妇女尤其如此)。此外还有那“被遗忘的百分之五”的老年人,他们由于家庭不能或不愿照顾而被送进了“养老院”,就是“老人院”(有时亦称“私人疗养院”)。
这个段落由六个语段组成,其中多数为单句语段。第一语段(句1)为主题句;第二、三、四、五、六语段是按照由轻而重的意义关系排列。第二语段(句2至句3)谈美国老年人贫穷问题;第三语段(句4)讲老年人的健康问题;第四语段(句5)讲老年人的行路问题;第五语段(句6至句7)讲老年人的生活孤独问题;最后,第六语段(句8)讲无家可归的老年人问题。各段意义由轻及重,形成语段之间的层递关系。又例如:
(1)Most people who have typewriters and can type well, prefer to type their letters nowadays.(2) There was a feeling a generation ago that typewriting was not quite proper in social correspondence,but,in the United States at least,the prejudice against typewriting much social correspondence has disappeared.(3)Many people,as a matter of fact,prefer that letters written to them be prepared on the typewriter,since it makes them easier to read.||(4)On the other hand,the objections to the typewriter are that it is less person-al and that it suggests that the writer was in too much of a hurry to sit down and write in longhand.(5)One's handwriting is in some ways as much an expression of his personality as his voice,and in correspondence between friends a great deal of the writer is missing if he uses a typewriter.(6)Therefore,the typewriter is often avoided in letters which express friendly and personal sentiments.
现在凡是有打字机并会打字的人大多宁愿用打字机写信。二三十年以前曾有一种感觉,总认为写社交信用打字机不太合适。可是现在,至少在美国,那种反对用打字机写社交信的偏见已经不复存在。实际情况是,许多人宁愿写给他们的信是用打字机打就的,因为这容易阅读。与此相反,那反对用打字机的理由是,用打字机打的信缺少个性,它使人感觉写信人太匆忙以致无法坐下来亲笔写信。一个人的笔迹,就像他的口音一样,通常是他的个性的表现,在给朋友写信时,如果用了打字机,这种个性便大部分消失了。因此,在写信表示友好和个人感情时常常避免使用打字机。
这一段文字共有六句,分为两个语段:句(1)至句(3)为第一语段,句(4)至句(6)为第二语段。两个语段分别表达了正反两层意思。句(1)至句(3)表达正面意思,说明为什么现在大多数人信件往来愿意打字而不愿手写。第二个语段(句4至句6)表达相反的意思。上下两个语段通过on the other hand连接起来,从而形成语段和语段之间的转折关系。又例如:
(1)Despite apparent differences,the operation of the computer and the telephone have much in common.(2)The operation of both can be thought of as being divided into three phases:input,processing,and output.||(3)In the case of the computer,the infor-mation:which is fed into the machine—the data—is the input;the internal operations of the machine constitute the processing;and the result—usually a printout—is called the output.||(4)The telephone,too,acts on information presented to it and produces a result.(5)The input is the actual dialing of the number.(6)The switching system which locates the number can be considered the processing phase.(7)Finally,the telephone rings on the other end of the line,indicating that the call has been completed;this constitutes the output.
计算机和电话虽迥然不同,但它们的运作方式却有许多共同之处。两者的运作都可分为三个阶段:输入、处理和输出。就计算机来说,馈入计算机的信息,即数据,叫做“输入”;计算机内部的运算叫做“处理”;运算的结果,通常打印出来,叫做“输出”。电话也是对接到的信息进行处理并产生结果。拨号就是电话的“输入”;交换系统查明号码的位置可以看作“处理”。最后,线路另一端的电话铃响了,表示一次传呼的完成,这就是“输出”。
这段文字分为三个语段:第一语段(句1至句2)为总提(说明计算机和电话在运作上有共同之处);第二语段(句3)和第三语段(句4至句7)为分述。语段之间是一种总分关系。又例如:
(1)The greatest product of Western America is grass.(2)Al-though its growth is stunted,it is exceedingly nutritious,and the dry air and absence of dews and rains,which cause it to cure naturally on its stem,make it possible for cattle,sheep,and horses to live on it in winter as well as in summer.||(3)When this discovery was made,the Great American Desert ceased to exist ,and what is known as the range industry was born.(4)From the Gulf to Canada,and from western Kansas and Nebraska to the Sierras,the cattle round-up and the mess wagon followed close on the disappearing Indian and buffalo.
草是美国西部最主要的产物。那里的草虽然长不高,却极富营养。空气干燥,雨露稀少,使草的茎部得到自然的养护,这就有可能使马牛羊不仅在夏季而且在冬季都可得到赖以为生的饲料。这种情况一经发现,所谓“美洲大沙漠”便不复存在了。应运而生的是所谓的“牧场业”。从墨西哥湾到加拿大,从堪萨斯州和内布拉斯加州到内华达山脉,随着印第安人和北美野牛的一去不返,养牛场和食品车接踵而来,遍布各地。
这段文字分为两个语段:句(1)至句(2)为第一语段,说明美国西部牧草之丰美;句(3)至句(4)为第二语段,说明美国西部畜牧业之兴起。前者为因,后者为果。因此,这两个语段之间是一种因果关系。
语段的章法作用
当语段进入语篇时,不仅语段和语段之间结成一定的语义关系,而且不同的语段在语篇中往往起着不同的章法作用。我们知道,一个较长的语篇通常都有开头和结尾,在行文中还要用一些过渡词语起承上启下的作用。这在单语段的语篇中一般是由句子来表示的,而在多语段的语篇中则由语段来表示。当然,这种表示“起承转合”的语段有时也可采取单句的形式。下面,我们列举一些话语片断,并从中观察语段的章法作用:
Californians and New Englanders are both American.They speak the same language and abide by the same federal laws.But they are very different in their ways of life.Mobility—both physical and psychological—has made a great impression on the culture of Cali-fornians;lack of mobility is the mark of the customs and morality of New Englanders…
加利福尼亚人和新英格兰人都是美国人。他们说相同的语言,遵守相同的联邦法律。然而他们在生活方式上很不相同。流动性(形体上的和心理上的)在加州人的文化上打下深刻的烙印;而缺少流动性则标志着新英格兰人的风俗习惯和精神素质。
上面选段的斜体部分是一个引进话题的语段,该语段由三个句子组成,它的意义重心在第三句,引出美国加州人和新英格兰人生活方式的差异。又例如下面一段关于美国人和日本人互致问候的方式不同的文字:
…Americans might be embarrassed because their Japanese friends are so formal with them.Japanese might feel insulted be-cause American acquaintances greet them casually.Still,the forms of greeting in both countries only show respect for others.It just hap-pens that Americans and Japanese have a different way of looking at human relationships and thus have a different way of showing respect.
美国人可能因为日本朋友对他们过于拘礼而感到局促。日本人可能由于美国朋友对他们打招呼过于随便而感觉受到凌辱。在日本和美国,打招呼的方式虽然不同,却都是对别人表示敬意。只是美国人和日本人看待人际关系的方式不同,从而对人表示敬意的方式也不同。
在以上选段中,斜体部分是一个用作“结束语”的语段,由两个句子组成,它是对上文思想内容的总结和概括。又例如:
Professor Throgmorton,of London University,was giving his usual weekly lecture on English history when he noticed that someone at the back of the room was fiddling with something in his hands.
“You at the back!”he shouted.“What was the date of the signing of the Magna Carta?
Everyone in the room looked round in surprise.There was a long silence followed by a low voice saying,“Me,sir?”
“Yes,you,sir.”
“I don't know,sir.”
“Well,you ought to know.We did it last week.You should have made notes.All right.Here's a question you ought to be able to answer:Who was Oliver Cromwell and what did he do?”
“I'm afraid I don't know, sir.”
“You don't know!You don't know!Apparently you don't know anything you ought to know.What were you doing last week when we did all this?”
“I was out drinking with friends…”
“I don't know how you dare tell me such a thing.You should have made notes.How can you dare to hope you'll pass the exam at the end of the course?Tell me that…”
“Well,sir,I don't know about any exam.I only came in to mend the radiator.”
伦敦大学的萨勒摩尔顿教授正在作每周一次的英国史讲座,忽然看见教室后面有人两手不停地拨弄着什么。教授厉声道:“你,后面的!大宪章是哪年签订的?”
教室里所有的人都惊奇地回头望去。半晌鸦雀无声,过一会有人低声问道:“先生,你说我吗?”
“不错,说的就是你,先生。”
“我不知道呀,先生。”
“咳,你应该知道呀。我上星期才讲的。你本该记笔记呀!好啊。有个问题,你应该能够回答:奥利弗·克伦威尔是何许人?他做过什么事?”
“我恐怕不知道吧,先生。”
“你不知道,你不知道,该知道的显然你都不知道。上周我讲课时,你在干什么?”
“我跟朋友们到外面喝酒去了……”
“我真不懂你竟敢对我讲这种事。你本该记笔记呀!你怎敢指望本课程结束时能够考试及格?告诉我……”
“唉,先生,我不知道什么考试不考试。我来这儿是修暖气的。”
这个语篇基本上是对话体,从而不分段落。这篇文字的斜体部分是一个承上启下的语段。由它引出下面一系列对话。语段在语篇中所起的这种“起承转合”作用就像单句在较短的语篇中以及段落在较长的语篇中所起的章法作用是一样的。
线性结构和层次结构
从上述诸例可以看出,现代英语的篇章结构大体可分为两类:一类是“线性结构”(Linear Structre),另一类是“层次结构”(Hier-archical Structure)。所谓线性结构就是句与句之间或者语段与语段之间在逻辑意义上不存在主从关系或层次问题,即话语进程基本上是直线发展的。对话体多半属于线性结构。现在我们来看一看对话的组织结构特征。
对话是言语交谈的变换体系,这种体系的重要特征之一是在对话时必须遵循“轮流规则”。这就是说,对话总是在甲乙双方之间进行,甲问乙答,乙问甲答;一方在发言,另一方便停止发言;彼此轮流讲话,便在甲乙两方之间建立起传递信息的渠道。当然,在言语交谈中,还可能有两个以上的人参加对话。但是,不管有多少人参加,在进行交谈的时候,总是轮流讲话,轮流发言,而不可能许多人同时讲话,否则,传递信息的渠道就会发生障碍。由于对话是一种轮流的言语活动,所以,对话开始时引进话题,中途改变话题或者打断对方发言等等总都是由交谈的一方来进行。这样,对话便形成一个回合接着一个回合,一个话题接着一个话题,一个语段接着一个语段,从而形成线性的发展过程。下面让我们分析一段对话:
由上述对话分析可以看出,这段对话是由八个话题,也就是八个语段组成:[A]→[B]→[C]→[D]→[E]→[F]→[G]→[H]形成一种语段的链条,所以叫做“线性结构”。
与线性结构相对应的是“层次结构”。所谓层次结构指构成语篇的句子或者语段相互之间在逻辑意义上存在着一种主从关系,它们或者是解释关系,或者是因果关系,或者是总分关系。总之,这些句子或语段不在同一平面上,而是在不同的层次上。书卷体通常属于这类结构,即一个语篇往往由不同层次的语段构成。下面,我们分析一篇短文,内容是略谈英国英语和美国英语在词汇、拼法和发音三方面的某些不同点:
[A](1)British English and American English are almost exactly the same.(2)But there are minor differences between British English and American English in vocabulary.||(3)Almost all the words used in British English and American English are exactly the same.(4)Only a very small number of words are used differently.(5)For example,Americans would say“an apartment”,but Britishers would say“a flat”to talk about the place they live.||(6)To talk about the back compartment of a car,a Britisher would say“boot, but an American would say“trunk”.(7)These are examples of common words that are different in British and American English.(8)In addition to some common words,many idiomatic expressions are different.(9)An example of idiomatic expression is the expression for telephoning someone.(10)In England people might say,“I'll ring you up tonight,but in the U.S.,people might say,“I'll call you up tonight.”(11)So we might say,the first difference between British English and American English is vocabulary,especially idioms.||[B](12)The second difference between British and American English is pronunciation.(13)The main difference in pronunciation concerns the vowels,especially and O.(14)Some American dialects and some British dialects use these vowels in different ways.(15)For example,an American would say,“I can't/knt/call you”,but a Britisher would say,“I can't/knt/call you”.(16)Americans and British-ers don't understand each other's pronunciation.(17)But most of the time Britishers and Americans do understand each other's pro-nunciation,because most of the sounds of the two dialects are the same.||[C](18)The third difference is very small.This is the difference in spelling.(19)A few kinds of words are spelled differ-ently in British and American English.(20)The most common ex-ample is a word like center.(21)In British English this word would be spelled C-E-N-T-R-E,while in American English the same word would be spelled C-E-N-T-E-R.(22)Another example is the end-ing“-or” or“-our”.(23)The word colour is spelled C-O-L-O-U-R in Britain,but C-O-L-O-R in the U.S. ||[D](24)Generally then,we can say that three small areas of difference between British English and American English are found in the areas of vocabulary,spelling and pronunciation.
英国英语和美国英语几乎是完全相同的。两者在词汇方面有着一些微小的差异。在英国英语和美国英语中,几乎所有的词都是相同的,只有很少几个词用法不同,比如讲到人们的居室美国人称之为apartment,而英国人则称之为flat。讲到汽车后部的行李箱,英国人称之为boot,而美国人则称之为trunk。这些例子是在常用词方面英国英语和美国英语的不同之处。除了常用词,还有许多惯用法的区别,比如要表达“今晚我要给你打电话”,在英国,人们会说,I'll ring you up tonight,而在美国则说I'll call you up tonight。因此我们可以说,英国英语和美国英语的区别首先是在词汇方面,特别是在惯用法方面。英国英语和美国英语第二方面的区别在于发音,主要是和O等几个元音的发音。这几个元音在某些美国方言和英国方言中发音是不同的,例如美国人说I can't/knt/call you,而英国人则说 I can't/knt/call you。有时,美国人和英国人不理解彼此的语音,然而在大多数情况下,两者对于彼此的语音是理解的,因为两种方言的大多数音值是相同的。两种方言第三方面的区别是很小的,这是在拼写方面。有少数几个词在英国英语和美国英语中拼写不同:最普通的例子如center一词在英国英语中拼作centre,而相同的词在美国英语中拼作center。又例如词尾-or或-our:colour一词在英国拼作c-o-l-o-u-r,而在美国却拼作c-o-l-o-r。总之,我们可以说,英国英语和美国英语只在词汇、拼写、发音三个方面略微有些区别。
这是一个多层次的语篇结构。全篇共有24句,分为四个语段:A 段包括句(1)至句(11),这个语段从词汇和习惯用语方面说明英国英语和美国英语是大同小异的。B段包括句(12)至句(17),这个语段是从语音方面说明英国英语和美国英语的某些差异。C段包括句(18)至句(23),从单词拼写方面说明英国英语和美国英语的某些微小差异。D段是个单句语段,总括全文。A段本身又可分为若干较小的语段:句(1)和句(2)形成第一小段[A1],这是A段的主题句;句(3)至句(7)为第二小段[A2],从单词方面发挥A段的主题思想;句(8)至句(10)为第三小段[A3],从成语方面发挥A 段的主题思想;二、三两个小语段由句(8)起承上启下的作用;并以[A4](句11)总括整个A段的意义。所以A段是个复杂的语段结构,它的特征是先总提,后分述,再总括的组合法。B段和C段通过表示顺序的逻辑纽带(the second difference,the third difference)和A 段(the first difference)紧密相连。最后,D段以 generally then为承接词,总括了ABC三段的意义。因此,这个语篇就其总的结构来说是先分述、后总提的组合法。现用图表说明如下:
构成这一语篇的各个语段至少可以分为三个主要的层次,如果以构成语段的各个句子为标准进行分析,还可分出更多的层次来。这就是层次结构。一篇文章是否组织得好,就要看句与句之间、语段与语段之间,还有段落与段落之间是否层次分明。
篇章纽带
由上节所举的各个例段中可以看出,当句子进入语段、语段进入语篇的时候,往往要用一些连接手段把句子和句子、语段和语段,有时甚至是段落和段落连接起来,使它们之间建立起各种逻辑意义关系,并使整个的语篇在意义上具有连贯的性质。这种连句成篇的手段叫做篇章纽带。篇章纽带可分为三大类:逻辑纽带、语法纽带、词汇纽带。兹分述如下:
逻辑纽带
逻辑纽带(Logical Connector)指表示各种逻辑意义的连句手段,包括表示时间关系、空间关系、列举和顺序、增进和引申、转折和对比、等同和替换、过渡和总结、因果和推论等等逻辑意义的篇章纽带。其中多数是连接性状语,又叫“连接性附加语”(Conjunct),当然还有其他结构发挥类似的作用。
1)表示时间关系的连句手段
表示时间关系的连句手段是一些表示时间过渡的连接性状语,如 meantime,meanwhile,in the meantime,in the meanwhile等,以及某些时间状语。例如:
Last summer I took a job as a waitress.My motives at the time were purely ulterior:I had been attracted by local fables of the generous tips left by tourists and thought I would earn some easy money towards a college wardrobe.My routine was the regular one:take orders,carry food,clean up the table,and repeat—eight hours a day,six days a week.During that first week,I could only stumble home after a day's work and fall in bed.Even when I had become accustomed to the routine,I never had any trouble distingishing between the drudgery of that hot,noisy restaurant and the relaxation which came naturally but too briefly with the leisure of a cool evening.By the end of the summer,I had firmly resolved never to take another job unless the work itself was interesting.
去年夏天我在一家餐馆打工,当女招待。我当时的动机是完全见不得人的。我曾被当地人的谎言所引诱,据说游客会慷慨地给小费,我想轻易地挣点钱,买点儿上大学穿的衣服。我的工作就是那老一套:开菜单、端莱、揩餐桌,如此循环反复,每天8小时,每周6天。第一个星期,我每天只能跌跌撞撞地回家,一到家就瘫在床上。即使后来习惯了那种工作,我还是感到在那烦热喧嚣的餐馆中苦力干活和下班后随着晚凉而来的短暂的清闲自在其反差是何等之大。暑期结束时,我下定决心再也不去打工了,除非工作本身是有趣味的。
在上述选段中,last summer,at the time,during that first week,even when I had become accustomed to the routine,by the end of the summer 都表示时间过渡,起连句成篇的作用。
2)表示空间关系的连句手段
表示空间关系的连句手段通常是一些表示上下四方、前后左右的方位词或词组。常用于描写自然环境、地形地貌、房屋布置、物体构造等语篇中作连接纽带。例如:
It was the green heart of the canyon,…Here all things rested.Even the narrow stream ceased its turbulent down-rush long enough to form a quiet pool…
On one side,beginning at the very lip of the pool,was a tiny meadow,a cool,resilient surface of green that extended to the base of the frowning wall.Beyond the pool a gentle slope of earth ran up and up to meet the opposing wall.Fine grass covered the slope—grass that was spangled with flowers,with here and there patches of color,orange and purple and golden.Below,the canyon was shut in.There was no view.The walls leaned together abruptly,and the canyon ended in a chaos of rocks,moss-covered and hidden by a green screen of vines and creepers and boughs of trees.Up the canyon rose far hills and peaks,the big foothills,pine-covered and remote.And far beyond,like clouds upon the border of the sky,towered minarets of white,where the Sierra's eternal snows flashed austerely the blazes of the sun.
这是峡谷的绿色心脏,这里一切都很平静,甚至那狭窄的河流也停止了奔腾,最后汇成一片宁静的深潭。……在深潭的一边,从潭水边缘开始伸展着一片草地,那里绿草如茵直达峭壁的底部。在深潭的另一边,有一个土坡缓缓向上与对面的崖岭相连,土坡上一片青翠,颜色各异的花草,橙色、紫色、金黄色点缀其间。峡谷的下面,群山环绕,突兀险峻,挡住视野。峡谷尽头处是一丛长满青苔的乱石,在藤萝竹树掩映下窈不可测。在峡谷的上面,可以眺望远处的峰峦和青松覆盖的山麓丘陵。更远些便是嵯峨峰岭像白云似的漂浮空际,那就是内华达山脉的常年积雪庄严地闪耀着太阳的光辉。
在上面的选段中,here,on one side,beyond the pool,below,up the canyon,and far beyond等方位词语都起了承上启下的篇章纽带作用。
3)表示列举和顺序的连句手段
表示列举和顺序的连句手段主要有:first,second,third…;first(ly),secondly,thirdly…;one,two,three…(主要用于学术论文和科技文章);for one thing…(and)for another(thing);for a start(用于非正式语体);to begin with,to start with;in the first place,in the second place;next,then;finally,eventually,last,lastly;to conclude(用于正式语体)。例如:
Omelettes are made from eggs and a few other things.They are quite easy to make.First,crack the eggs and put them into a bowl.Use two or three eggs for each person.Mix the eggs well with a fork or with chopsticks.Mix the eggs until the mixture is all the same colour,or like yellow.Second,take the things or ingredients that you want to add to the omelette.For example,you can add cheese,ham or vegetables.Cut the ingredients into small piecese.Third,put a little bit of butter or margarine onto the bottom of the frying pan.Light the stove and melt the butter.You need butter or mar-garine so that the eggs won't stick to the pan.Fourth,pour the eggs into the frying pan.Then,put the other ingredients on top of the eggs.After a couple of minutes turn the eggs over.Use a fork or a spatula or an egg-turner.When both sides of the eggs are cooked,you move the omelette from the pan.It's ready to eat.
蛋饼是用鸡蛋和少量其他调料制成,做法简单。首先把鸡蛋打在碗里,每份用两三个蛋就够了。用叉子或筷子把蛋搅匀,使它变成一种颜色——黄色。第二,取出你要加的调料如奶酪、火腿、蔬菜等,切成碎末。第三,在锅底上抹点黄油或人造黄油,点着炉子,使黄油熔化,用黄油或人造黄油是为了使蛋不会粘锅。第四,把蛋倒入锅内,放上调料,过几分钟,用叉子或蛋铲把蛋翻个身。等蛋煎得两面黄的时候,便将蛋饼取出,可以吃了。
不言而喻,本节所讲的表示列举和顺序的连接纽带在较长的语篇中通常都是交叉使用的。
4)表示意义增进和引申的连句手段
表示意义增进和引申的连句手段主要有again,also,further-more,moreover,then(用于非正式语体,特别是口语体),in addi-tion,above all,what is more等连接性状语。例如:
You should not trust advertisements.Look at the products them-selves to see if they really are what the advertisers claim them to be.Talk to your friends to find out if they have had success with the products.Read about product research in Consumer Reports.And then you will find things are sometimes not so good as they are ad-vertised to be.Above all,don't buy a product because an advertise-ment says that a famous football player or a movie star likes it.你不应该相信广告。你得看看产品本身,瞧瞧它们是否真像广告说的那样。你可以问问你的朋友,了解他们使用某种产品效果如何。你还可以阅读《消费者报》的产品调查,那你就会发现事情并不如广告说的那样好。最重要的是,千万不要因为广告上说某某足球明星或某某电影明星爱用某物你就去把它买来。
5)表示转折和对比的连句手段
这一类连句手段包括表示转折、对比和让步等类似意义的连接性状落在内。主要有however,nevertheless,still,though,yet,in any case,at any rate,in spite ot that,after all,instead,then,on the contrary,by way of contrast,conversely,by way of comparison,(on the one hand…)on the other hand等,当然还有并列连词but。例如:
…If your report relates to the distribution of food to the needy,tell how and when and why and what.Use specific language appropriate to the subject and the audience.You do not need to fill your reports with long,technical words to lend an air of scientific precision.On the contrary,your report,will probably be told with mostly short,common words.The words everyone knows are the words everyone understands.Thus,the grocery list names salt,not sodium chloride.But for the chemistry report,of course,salt will not be precise enough.
……如果你的报导是关于分配食品给穷人,你就直截了当地说怎样分配,何时分配,为什么要分配以及分配什么。你得使用一种适合于主题和听众的语言,而不必用冗长的专门术语来使报导带有科学的精确性。恰恰相反,你得用一些短小的常用词,这些词人人都知道,人人都理解。因此在杂货店的货物单上有“盐”,而不叫“氯化钠”。但若在化学报告中,“盐”这一名称就不够精确了。
6)表示等同和替换的连句手段
这一类连句手段包括 equally,likewise,similarly,in the same way;namely,in other words,that is,that is to say;better,rather,alter-natively,on the other hand等。
表示“等同”指某些连句手段所引导的下文与上文所表达的意思是类似的或者在重要性上是差不多的。这一类的连句手段(也可以归入“比较照应”项下)主要有 equally,likewise,similarly等。这一类词语所引导的下文有时还带有表示意义增进的意思。例如:
Sometimes the decision to begin a new paragraph almost becomes a matter of instinct that might be compared with shifting gears on an automobile.Most experienced drivers develop an“ear”that tells them when it is necessary to shift gears.They listen to the sound of their engines and develop a sense about shifting gears after the auto-mobile has reached a certain speed.Similarly,writers listen to the rhythm of their paragraph.They can hear it begin,gain momentum,and reach a peak.They develop a sense that tells them when it is necessary to shift into a new paragraph.In moving from one paragraph to the next,they try to make clear the connection in thought between the paragraph they are concluding and the new one they are beginning.
有时,决定另起一段就像开汽车换档一样是一种本能的活动。大多数有经验的司机都养成一种指示他们换档的“听力”,他们静听发动机的声音就能判断车速,决定换档。同样地,作家们体味着段落的节奏,体味着一个段落的起步、加速和达到顶峰,从而养成一种本能,知道什么时候应该另起一段。在由一个段落过渡到另一段落时,作家们总是力图将上一段和下一段很自然地衔接起来。
表示“替换”指某些连句手段所引导的下文,对于上文来说,是改变一下说法,或者是在许多可能的选择当中,提出一种选择。这类连句手段主要有(or)again,alternatively,rather,(even)batter,worse(sill)等。例如:
Would you like to have a meeting about matter this afternoon?
Alternatively,we could discuss it at dinner.
今天下午开个会讨论这件事,好吗?要不,我们可在吃晚饭时讨论。
They were enjoying themselves.Rather(Or rather)they appeared to be enjoying themselves.
他们玩得开心。更确切地说,他们表现出玩得开心的样子。
在这里,rather意谓“更确切地说”。它和better的类似用法具有相同的含义。如果这类连句手段所引导的下文带有“更加不可取”的含义,那就要用worse或者worse still。例如:
He may be late.Worse still,he may not come at all.他可能迟到。更糟的是,他可能根本不会来。
7)表示过渡和总结的连句手段
表示“过渡”,就是引进新的一层意思或引进新的话题。这种连句手段主要有 incidentally,now,by the way等。例如:
Norway welcomes children,and here,as usually elsewhere,there is a 70 percent reduction for those three,50 percent from three to 12,provided they sleep in an extra cot,not in a separate room.You are half-price,incidentally,until you are 15 on Norwegian trains and most buses and steamers.
挪威欢迎儿童。在这里,像在其他地方一样,3岁以下的儿童可享受70%的优待,从3岁到12岁可享受50%的优待,只要他们睡在加铺,而不是另开房间。顺便提一下,15岁以下的儿童在挪威乘火车以及大多数的公共汽车和轮船都可享受半价。
又例如:
—…What about indoor games?
—Well,there's chess,biiliards,cards,tabe tennis.…By the way,do you play billiards?
—……有哪些室内游戏呢?
—噢,室内游戏有下棋、打桌球、玩纸牌、打乒乓球等。顺便问一下,你打桌球吗?
表示“总结”的连接性状语有 altogether,overall,all in all,in all,in brief,in conclusion,in short,to conclude,to sum up等。例如:
To sum up,rational knowledge depends upon perceptual knowledge and perceptual knowledge remains to be developed into rational knowledge-this is the dialectical-materialist theory of knowledge.
总之,理性认识来源于感性认识,而感性认识又有待于上升为理性认识,这就是辩证唯物主义的认识论。
8)表示结果和推论的连句手段
表示结果和推论的连句手段包括 as a result,accordingly,consequently,as a consequence,in consequence,for this/that reason,on that account,in that case,so,hence,therefore,then,thus等。例如:
Nothing more was heard of him.As a result,people thought he was dead.
再也没有他的消息,以致人们以为他死了。
Mr Blake withdrew from the world.As a consequence,he was forgotten.
布莱克先生退出政坛不问世事,结果被人遗忘。
It rained heavily last night;in consequence,a lot of crops were damaged.
昨夜大雨,结果大片庄稼受损。
Professor Baker is a little tired of teaching.Consequently,he is looking forward to his retirement.
贝克教授对教学有些倦意,他期待退休。
The boy lied to me several times before.For that reason,I don't believe him now.
那孩子曾几度对我说谎,因此现在我不相信他了。
The factory was burned down last night;on that account many workmen were thrown out of employment.
昨夜工厂火烧,以致许多工人失业了。
accordingly既可用作连句手段,也可用作方式状语;作为连句手段通常位于句首或者谓语动词之前的某个位置:
This correspondence is now closed.Accordingly no further letters will be published at present.
这种通信关系现已终止,从而不会再有信件发表了。
He said he was hungry;accordingly they shared their lunch with him.
他说他饿了,于是他们让他分享午餐。
如果用作方式状语,accordingly 通常位于谓语动词之后的某个位置。例如:
The dying man told the solicitor what he wanted and drew up the will accordingly.
那人临死前将其需求告诉了律师并照此写了遗嘱。
在这里,accordingly 是方式状语,修饰drew up the will。
表示推论的连接性状语 therefore,thus,hence 等与上一节所讲的表示总结的连句手段有某些交叉现象,因为这一类词语所引导的下文既可说是对上文的推论,也可说是对上文的总结和概括。例如:
The evidences of perjury are conclusive;therefore we find you guilty.
你制造伪证是证据确凿的,因此我们认为你有罪。
Very few people came to the meeting.Therefore,they decided to postpone it.
很少人到会,因此会议延期举行。
作为表示“推论”的连接性状语 then,在语义上相当于if so,in that case。例如:
“In fact,half my days seem to be spent in taking personal cogni-sance of Louis Bates.”
“其实,我花了将近一半时间来亲自观察路易斯·贝茨。”
“Then(=If so)you must realise he's egocentric to the most extravagant degree.”
“既然如此,你一定知道此人是个极端的利己主义者。”
therefore,then表示推论,既可位于句首,也可位于句中;而thus和hence则通常只位于句首。例如:
There has been no rain for thirty days in this area.Thus the crops are likely to suffer.
这个地区30天没有下雨了,因此庄稼可能受损。
The project will cost more than two million dollars,which is more than we can afford;hence,we cannot do it at the present time.
这个项目将花费200多万美元,这笔钱我们出不起,因此现在不能启动。
用then,therefore,thus所作的推论是根据上文作正面的推论。如果要朝相反的方面推论,便可用else或otherwise。else用作表示推论的连接性状语在意义上相当于if not。例如:
To meet the needs of the situatoin,agriculture had to undergo a drastic change—that was indisputable;else(=if not)the coun-try would have starved.
为满足新形势下的需要,农业必须彻底改革,那是无可争议的;如果不改革农业,国家早就闹饥荒了。
又例如:
…Obviously,any discussion of how to be successful must here begin with definitions of“success”.Otherwise,there will be no real discussion,but just two separate speeches.
显然关于怎样获得“成功”,任何讨论都必须从“成功”的定义出发。要不然的话,便不会有真正的讨论,不过是各说各的罢了。
要注意 otherwise 用作连接性状语和用作方式状语( differently,in a different manner)之间的区别。 otherwise若用作方式状语不大可能出现在句首。例如:
I could not do otherwise.我只能这样做。
You evidently think otherwise.显然,你想法不同。
在上述两例中,otherwise 都是方式状语。而用作连句手段的other-wise通常位于句首,但是,有时也可位于句子当中即与方式状语的位置相同,这时就得根据上下文或者语调,或者根据是否用逗号分隔开来,以判断它到底是连接性状语,还是方式状语。
语法纽带
所谓语法纽带(Grammatical Connector)指利用某些语法手段如动词时、体形式以及照应、替代、省略、平行结构等,以达到连接上下文的目的。这一类篇章纽带与上一节所讲的逻辑纽带有时会出现交叉现象。
1)使用动词时、体形式
某些时、体形式的前后配合可以起连句作用。比如在叙事文中,上文用过去进行体,下文用一般过去时,这种上下文很自然地连接起来形成一种叙事的背景,在这种背景下发生了某件事。例如:
Pavel was arrested.That day Mother did not light the stove.Evening came and a cold wind was blowing.There was a knock at the window.Then another.Mother was used to such knocks,but this time she gave a little start of joy.Throwing a shawl over her shoulders,she opened the door.
巴瓦尔被捕了。那天母亲没有生炉子。夜幕降临,寒风呼啸。有人敲一下窗户,接着又敲第二下。母亲早已习惯了这种敲窗户的声音,可是这一回她却感到一阵惊喜。她披上围巾,开了门。
这个段落包括三个语段,句1至句2表心境;句3表环境;句4至句7表事件。句3用了过去进行体(a cold wind was blowing),为句4至句7用一般过去时表述的动作提供了发生的背景,并在上下文之间搭起了过渡桥梁。
有时还可在上文用一般过去时,下文用过去完成体,以建立起上下文的逻辑联系。例如:
I stopped to let the car cool off and to study the map.I had expected to be near my objective by now,but everything still seemed alien to me.…
我把车子停下,让车子降温并查看地图。我本以为快到目的地了,可周围的一切对我似乎还是陌生的。……
在这里,下文用过去完成体(had expected…)为上文所讲的动作(stopped to…)提供了原因,从而建立起因果联系。当然,这类时、体形式的配合还可表示其他意义。例如:
I looked at the map and then at the mile-meter.I had come ten miles since leaving the town,and at this point,according to my father,I should be looking at farms and cottages in a valley,with the spire of the church of our village showing in the far distance.…
我看看地图,又看看里程表。自从离开市镇我已开了10英里,在这个地方,按照我父亲的估计该看见山谷里的农场和村庄了,我们村的教堂尖顶也应出现在远方了。……
上文第1—2两句的意义相当于I looked at the map… and found that I had come ten miles…,从而这两个句子也是通过时、体形式的结合而建立起一种因果关系。所有这些都说明,恰当地使用动词时、体形式可以达到连句成篇的目的。
2)利用照应手段
我们在本书第5章曾讲了“代词照应”。照应是一种重要的连句成篇的手段。分为人称照应(Personal Reference)、指示照应(Demonstrative Reference)和比较照应(Comparative Reference)。
关于人称照应和指示照应,在第5章已经基本上讲过了。在这里,我们要补充说明的是,除了指示代词以及相应的限定词以外,还有一些副词性的指示词也可起照应作用。这一类指示词包括表示时间的指示词(如 now, then, formerly,previously,meanwhile,afterwards等)和表示地点的指示词(如 here,there,elsewhere,hence,thence等)。这些指示词的使用一般都对上文起衔接作用。因为下文用了这些词,对于上文都是有所指的,这样,上下文就衔接起来了。例如下面两段描述爬火车的文字:
…Taking a firmer grip on the bar, I jumped,but it was too late,for the train was now going at a rapid rate.My foot came short of the step,and I fell,and still clinging to the handle bar,was dragged several yards before I relinquished my hold.And there I lay for several minutes,feeling a little shaken,whilst the train passed swiftly on into the darkness.
Even then I did not know what had happened,for I attempted to stand,but found that something had happened to prevent me from doing this.Sitting down in an upright position,I then began to examine myself,and now found that the right foot was severed from the ankle.…
我抓住把手,往车上跳,可是太晚了,那时火车开得快,我的脚没有够上踏脚板就摔了下来,但我仍然紧紧抓住把手不放,被拖了几码远,这才松了手。我在地上躺了几分钟,觉得有点颤抖,当时火车从我身旁掠过,消失在黑暗中。
即使在那时,我还不知发生了什么事。我想站起来,可是感到有什么东西弄得我站不起来。我便挺直坐下,开始检查我的身体,这才发现我的右脚与踝骨分离了。……
在这里,全篇通过副词性指示词now,then,there的出现而在上下文中建立起衔接关系。
比较照应指通过形容词和副词的比较等级形式以及其他比较事物的异同、质量的优劣等词语所表示的照应关系。例如:
…One Saturday afternoon,I hauled the machine into the gar-den and had a close look at it.As far as I could see,it only needed a minor adjustment:a turn of a screw here,a little tightening up there,a drop of oil and it would be as good as new.Inevitably the repair job was not quite so simple.…
一个星期六的下午,我把机器拖进园子,仔细观察。就我所能看到的,那机器只需作点小修:这里拧一下螺钉,那里紧固一下,再加点油,机器就会整旧如新。难以避免的是,修理工作并不是如此简单。……
又例如:
…All at once,I noticed that my wife seemed to be filled with alarm.Looking up I saw that we were surrounded by children in rags who were looking at us silently as we ate.We offered them food and spoke to them kindly,but they remained motionless.I concluded that they were simpy,shy of strangers.When we later walked down the main street of the village,we were followed by a silent procession of children.
…突然间,我注意到我的妻子似乎惊恐万状。抬头一看,原来我们被一群衣衫褴褛的孩子团团围住。他们不声不响地看着我们吃饭。我们主动向他们提供食品而且好言相待,可他们站在那里一动也不动,我断定这些孩子不过是怕生人而已。后来,我们在村庄的主要街道上步行时,我们身后还是跟着一大群不声不响的孩子。……
又例如:
The train whistled almost before we were ready,and pulled slowly out of the station.I allowed my companion on the advantage of being the first to jump,owing to his maimed hand.The train was now going faster and faster,and we were forced to keep pace with it.…
我们还未准备好,火车已经鸣笛,徐徐开出车站,由于我的同伴的手有残疾,我便让他优先爬车。火车开越快了,我们只好拼命地跟着火车跑。…
在上述第一例中 not…so simple与上文a minor adjustment…相照应,从而承接上文;在第二例中,later与上文一系列动作 offered-them food,spoke to them kindly,concluded that…相照应,表示walked down the main street…这一动作是随着上文一系列动作之后发生的,这也是表示时间关系的连句手段;在第三例中,going faster and faster与上文 pulled slowly相照应,都起着连接上下文的作用。
除了采用形容词和副词比较等级而外,还可用same,such,equal(ly),similar(ly),different(ly),other,eles,otherwise,in con-trast,by contrast等表示“等同”和“对比”的词语来与上文发生照应关系。例如:
Jennings is here to see you.詹宁斯来看你。
—I was expecting some one different.我在等另外一个人。
They've given us special places in the front row.Would you prefer the other seats?
他们已经为我们安排了前排专座。你是否要其他座位?
We wished her to go home and have a look at her children.But she evidently thought otherwise.
我们希望她回家看看孩子,而她却显然有不同的想法。
Harry failed the exam.By contrast,Tom'marks were excellent.
哈利考试不及格,相反地,汤姆却得了高分。
在以上第一例中,some one different与上文提到的Jennings相照应;在第二例中,the other seats与上文中special places in the front row相照应;在第三例中,otherwise与上文中 go home and have a look at her children相照应;而在第四例中,by contrast则在上下文中建立起对比关系。
在这里,我们应该指出,指示照应(特别是通过副词性指示词表示的照应关系)和比较照应与上一节所讲的逻辑纽带有某些交叉之处。比如by contrast既可说是表示比较照应的连句手段,也可说是表示“对比”的逻辑纽带。又例如equally,similarly既可说是表示照应关系的连句手段,也可说是表示“等同关系”的逻辑纽带。所以“逻辑纽带”和“语法纽带”在这里是很难截然分开的。
3)利用替代
替代(Substitution)既是一种避免重复的语法手段,也是一种连接上下文的手段。替代现象分为名词性替代、动词性替代和分句性替代,通常是在上句和下句之间起连接作用。
名词性替代(Nominal Substitution)指用名词替代词 one/ones,some,any,all,both,either,neither等不定代词以及the same,kind,sort等表示的替代现象。例如:
She doesn't like this book.Show her a more interesting one.
(one=book 她不喜欢这本书。拿一本更有趣的给她看。
动词性替代(Verbal Substitution)指用动词替代词do表示的替代现象。例如:
分句性替代(Clausal Substitution)指用分句替代词so和not表示的替代现象。例如:
4)利用省略
省略(Ellipsis)和替代一样,既是避免重复的手段,也是连接上下文的手段。作为连句手段,省略也可分为名词性省略(Nominal Ellipsis)、动词性省略(Verbal Ellipsis)和分句性省略(Clausal Ellipsis)。
例如:
He usually had two secretaries,one for interpretation,the other for making appointments.He must have two,you know.(two =two secretaries)(名词性省略) 他经常有两名秘书,一名管翻译,另一名管安排约会。他必须有两名秘书,你要知道。
由上述诸例可以看出,省略和替代有着共同的修辞目的:避免不必要的重复。不论省略也好,替代也好,上句和下句之间都在语义上建立起一种相互依赖的关系,因此,这两种语法手段同时又是连句的手段。
5)平行结构的使用
使用平行结构(Parallel Construction)既是个语法问题,也是个词汇问题。平行结构通常指重复使用同一种语法构造或句式,但也涉及词汇重复问题。所以这一条可以归入词汇纽带,也可归入语法纽带。例如:
Where did all these people come from?Many left the East be-cause of discontent with their prospects or the appeal of adventure.Many came from abroad,mostly from Europe,in search of political or religious freedom;others fled from poverty and hunger.Before 1880,most of the settlers came from northern and western Europe;after that,from southern and eastern Europe.Thousands of Asians came to the Pacific coast.The peak of movement was reached in the period from 1901 to 1910 during which some 8,800,00 persons entered the country.…
这许许多多的人是从哪里来的呢?有许多人离开东部,是因对前途不满,或者为了冒险。还有许多人是从外国来的,大部分来自欧洲,寻求政治或宗教自由;有些则迫于贫困饥饿逃亡而来。1880年以前,移民大部分来自北欧和西欧,此后则多数来自南欧和东欧。盈千累万的亚洲人则来到太平洋沿岸。1901至1910年间,移民达到了最高峰,这个时期从各方面漂洋过海来到美国的人约有880万。……
这个段落的第一句是主题句,为了回答 Where did all these people come from?这一问题,选用了五个“主语+ 一般过去时”的句式(Many left…,Many came…,others fled…,most of the settlers came …,Thousands of Asians came…),其中光是came这一关键词就先后重复了四次。这些相同句式和关键词的重复使用显然起到连句成篇的作用。
词汇纽带
词汇纽带(Lexical Connector)指通过关键词的重复、同义词和反义词的使用等等而建立起来的上下文的联系。
在上一节,我们提到替代和省略是避免重复的手段,那里所讲的“重复”指非关键词的重复。在篇章中,一个非关键词是不宜重复的,重复了非关键词,其附近的关键词便得不到应有的突出,这就会形成累赘现象。至于关键性的词语,有时是必须重复的,重复能使它得到应有的强调,并在上下文之间建立起必要的联系。
关键词的重复可以是同一词项的复现。同一词项的复现既可以是连接句子的手段,也可以是连接语段和段落的手段。例如:
(1)Roman roads were built on a solid stone base and paved with flat rocks.(2)They were crowned on the top and ditched along the sides for drainage.(3)They were designed to run in almost straight lines and to go over hills,not around them.(4)Roman armies used them as military highways—ten to twenty feet wide—to move legions rapidly and to supply them adequately.(5)These roads led to and from key adminitrative cities such as London,originally built as a depot and trade center,and gave the Romans good control over the surrounding countryside.(6)In Britain alone,a great series of roads radiated from the southeast to all parts of the island.(7)Thanks to these superbly designed roads linking cities and ensuring rapid troop movement,the Romans could hold conquered territory and expand the Empire
罗马驰道是建筑在坚固的石头路基上,路面铺以扁平的石块。路面是隆起的,而且两旁开沟以便排水。道路设计是为了直线奔驰,逢山过山,而不是绕山而行。罗马帝国的军队用这种道路作为军事通道。这种道路的宽度达到10至20英只,能使罗马军团快速运动并得到充分补给。这些道路把一些行政后勤城市连接起来,比如伦敦早先就是一个兵站和商业中心,罗马人就是通过这些城市来控制周围的乡村。仅在不列颠岛上就有一个驰道网,由岛的东南部辐射到全岛各地。正因为有这些精心设计的驰道连接了城市,保证了军队的快速调动,所以罗马人能够控制征服的领土并扩展罗马帝国。
上面这个段落包括四个语段:句(1)至句(3)为第一语段,泛述罗马驰道的构造;句(4)至句(5)为第二语段,泛述罗马驰道的用途;句(6)为第三语段,具体地提一下不列颠岛上的罗马驰道;句(7)为第四语段,总结全文,概述罗马驰道的军事和政治意义。这四个语段都是通过roads一词的重现而上下相连,最后(句7)又通过Romans 一词的重现而与句(1)、句(4)、句(5)前后呼应。
关键词的重复作为一种连句手段必须用得恰到好处,像在上述选段中,roads一词前后不过重现四次,在其他地方还是利用代词照应作为连句手段,如句(2)、句(3)、句(4)先后用了they,they,them来指代roads。这样就既给予关键词应有的强调,又注意了表达方式的多样性,避免了文辞单调和累赘。但是,有时,只要处理得当,虽多次重现同一词项,也并不给人以单调累赘之感,反而有助于产生特殊的修辞效果。关于这一点我们将在以后举例说明。
有时,关键词的重复可以采取同义词的形式出现,这同样可起连句作用。例如:
There are no set rules which actors must follow to become profi-cient in their art;however,there are certain principles regarding the use of mind,voice,and body which may help them.
演员们要在演技上达到娴熟程度并无固定规则可循,但是,有一些关于如何运用头脑、声调、身体的原则对演员可能还是有帮助的。
在这里,principles是 rules的同义词。再者,同义词往往是成群地存在,这叫做“同义词群”。在一个同义词群中,通常有一个起支配作用的词叫做“概括词”,它体现了其他同义词所共有的特征。比如 furniture是table,desk,chair,wardrobe,dresser等的“概括词”,后者则是furniture的“下属词”。在使用词汇重复的手段时,可以用一个同义词群的概括词去复现它的下属词,这就是近义词的复现。例如:
I don't know where to stay in Geneva.
I have never been to that place.
我不知道住日内瓦什么地方。我从未到过那个地方。
Henry' bought himself a new Jaguar.He practically lives in the car.
亨利买了一辆豹牌汽车。他几乎就住车里了。
By now,a rocket will have set off on its 35 million mile trip to Mars and soientists must be waiting anxiously for the results.The rocket will be travelling for six months before it reaches the planet.
现在,一枚火箭估计已经开始它的 3500万英里的飞向火星的航程。科学家们一定正在焦急地等候航行的结果。这枚火箭将飞行6个月才能到达火星。
在上述诸例中that place是 Geneva的概括词;the car是Jaguar的概括词;the planet 是的概括词。近义词的复现还可表现为用下属词来复现概括词。例如:
…Since money was of grotesque importance to these people who had to dig for every penny,they admired a man who could come by it easily and cleverly.Ironically when Flem skinned someone of his last nickel and kept the fact to himself,the people would interpret Flem's silence as sheer modesty,…
既然金钱对于这些人至关重要,既然他们赚些小钱也得花费气力,那生财有道,不费力气就能赚钱的人当然就受人羡慕了。带有讽刺意味的是,当弗兰姆刮去某人的最后一文钱而又不动声色的时候,人们往往把他的沉默解释为谦虚的表现,……
在这里,money是概括词,penny和nickel则是money的下属词。所以这里是用下属词来复现概括词。
关键词的复现除了起连句作用外,还是一个重要的修辞手段。词的多次重复便引起“积累”,“积累”形成“对照”,“对照”引人注目,从而成为一种重要的强调手段。这在广告体中最为突出,在文艺体中也广为应用。下面是英国作家乔治·吉辛(George Gissing)写的一段文字,描述他自己大半辈子漂流无“家”,终于定居下来,有了“家”,从而安定之感油然而生,但字里行间仍然浮泛着“无家”的苦楚,漂泊的辛酸:
To me,this little book-room is beautiful,and chiefly because it is home.Through the greater part of life I was homeless.Many places have I inhabited,some which my soul loathed,and some which pleased me well;but never till now with that sense of security which makes a home.At any moment I might have been driven forth by evil hap,by nagging necessity.For all that time did I say within myself:Some day,perchance,I shall have a home;yet the“per-chance” had more and more of emphasis as life went on,and at the moment when fate was secretly smiling on me,I had all but abandoned hope.