中考复习英语语法要点归纳[上学期]

课件中心精品资料 www. 找精品资料 到课件中心
中考复习英语语法要点归纳
A． 名词、主谓一致 1-3
B． 冠词 3-4
C． 代词 4-6
D． 数词 6-7
E． 形容词与副词 7-10
F． 连词与从句 10-15
G． 介词 15-17
H． 动词 17-22
I． 非谓语动词 22-26
1． 不定式 22
2． 分词 23
3． 动名词 25
J． 倒装语序 26-27
K．反意疑问句 27-28
A．名词、主谓一致
一．名词形式
1. 形单意复：people, public, police, cattle, folk
2. 形复意单, politics , physics, thanks, savings,
news, brains(头脑，智力), maths, etc.
3. 单复同形：Chinese, Japanese, Swiss, deer, fish, sheep, bison, grouse, swine, means, works,data, crossroads, horsepower, series, species, head(头数)
二．不可数名词（物质、抽象、专有名词）
1． 物质名词：一般情况下是不可数的，出现复数有下列两种情况：
(1) 表示类别：teas（各种茶叶），steels（各种钢材）
(2) 表示不同意义：wood→woods森林；sand
→sands沙滩；air→airs架子；paper→papers
文件；iron→irons手铐；time→times时代；green→greens蔬菜
2． 专有名词：一般没有复数形式，但下列情况可有复数形式：
(1) 表示某性一家或两夫妇 the Einsteins
(2) 表示同名同性的若干人
1) There are two Marys and three Roberts in his class.
3． 抽象名词：有的抽象名词当意义转为表示某类的个体名词，就可以成为可数名词。
Beauty→a beauty/ beauties美人
Youth→a youth / youths青年人
Sight→a sight / sights 情景，奇观
Power→ a power / powers强国
4． 当物质名词、抽象名词等不可数名词前面有表示其特殊性质或类别的形容词或后面有短语修饰时，指概念上的“一类、一种、一次”时，前面一般要有不定冠词。
1) No one has a greater appreciation than I.
2) They are doing a great business in Hebei.
3) He got a firm hold of the rope.
4) We can catch a clear sight of the city.
但有不少常用不可数名词是例外的，这些词有：advice, control, conduct, danger, furniture, fun, health, material information, luck, music, news, progress, trouble, weather, work, etc.
1) What fine weather!
2)What great progress!
不少不可数名词做的have宾语或There be的主语时，及动作名词做make或take的宾语时，该名词前面有不定冠词a。（也有例外）have a walk, have a cold, take a seat, make a decision, etc.
1) There is a rain / snow / fog yesterday.
三．可数名词
1．集体名词：
如果说话者把它当作一个整体来看，谓语动词要用单数形式；如果把它看为一个个体的人或物，谓语动词要用复数形式。常用的集体名词有：army, cattle, class, committee, company, crowd, enemy, gang, family, gang government, group, majority, party, population, public, team, etc.
1) The class is big.
2) The class are listening to the teacher.
四．其他要点说明：
1．名词做定语有三种情况：
(1) 大多数用单数形式：a boy friend, two girl students.
(2) 有些用复数形式：sports car, customs officer, arms production, clothes shop, a goods train, sales department, savings bank, ( 还有affairs, pains, details, honors, communications 等)
(3) 个别随被修饰名词变化而变化：a woman
doctor, two women doctors
2. 名词与名词所有格做定语的区别：
(1) 名词所有格做定语通常表示所有关系，如不表示所有关系，通常用名词做定语。
(2) 名词所有格做定语也可表类别，如a doctor’s degree等，所以表示类别时，是用名词直接做定语，还是用名词所有格做定语，一定要注意习惯搭配，如a peasant family但a worker’s family; Children做定语，习惯上所有用格，如children’s clothes, a children’s hospital，不宜用of格，如是动宾关系的，常用of格，如her love of children, their hate of the enemy等，却很少用’s格。
3. 表示有生命的东西的名词用’s格；表示国
家、城市、太阳、地球、时间、距离、价值等概念的名词也用’s格( China’s capital, the earth’s surface, a miles’ distance )；在现代英语中工业、工厂、公司、机器等也可以用’s格( the machine’s base, the bearing’s life )。
4. 有些名词词组是被视为整体的，名词位置不
能改变，一般也只有一个冠词或限定词，从表面看是复数，实际上是单数，是由它们概念所构成一个集合体，其中的and实际上是和with （带有…的）相似。Knife and fork, break and butter, lock and key, coat and tie, truth and honest, heart and soul, rain and shine, pork and peas, salt and water, soap and water, iron and steel, food, clothing and shelter
1) He played a good knife and fork.吃饱了
2) The fork and knife is used at meals in the western countries.
3) Truth and honest is the best policy.
4) Our parents provide us with food, clothing and shelter.
五．主谓一致原则
1．语法一致原则
(1) 动词不定式、动名词及从句做主语，谓语动
词要用单数形式。（ What引导的主语从句有例
外情况）
1) Going to bed early and getting up early is a good habit.
2) What I say and do is no business of yours.
3) What he has bought for me are only a few magazines.
4) To see is to believe.
(2) 用and连接两个或以上的名词做主语，谓语
动词要用复数形式，但如果两个并列名词是指同
一整体或同一概念时，谓语动词则用单数形式。
1) The singer and the dancer are to attend our evening meeting.
2) His father and mother are away on business.
3) The writer and worker is to attend our meeting
4) Steam and ice are different forms of water.
5) Bread and butter is a daily food in the west.
(3) 两个名词由介词（名词+介词+名词）with, besides, like, but, except, together with, along with, no less than, more than, rather than, including及连词 as well as连接的单位做主语，谓语动词与第一个名词保持一致。
1) The book as well as the other two is borrowed from the library.
2) The poor woman with her two children was seen begging in a street corner.
3) Nobody but Jane and I knows the secret.
(4) 两个或以上名词由and连接且都受no, every, each, many a 等修饰时，谓语动词要用单数形式
1) No teacher and no student wants to see the film.
2) Every desk and every chair is made of wood.
3) Many a teacher and many a student has taken part in the stormy discussion.
(5) 表示时间、距离、价格和度量衡等名词做主语时，谓语动词一般用单数形式。
1) Two hours is not long enough for this test.
2) One dollar and eighty-seven cents was all Della had.
3) One and half days is all I can spare.
(6) 不管主语概念如何，谓语动词只和主语形式保持数的一致。
1) The students each have a dictionary now.
2) More than one person was watching the strange star that night.
3) There are one or two things I want to talk over with you.
4) Many a child has lost their parents.
(7) 由分数 / 百分数+of +名词的结构做主语时，谓语动词与其名词保持数的一致。
1) 30% of the students come from the south.
2) Two thirds of the water here is polluted.
(8) 定语从句的谓语动词与其先行词保持人称和数的有一致。（the only one of+名词例外）
1) Mary is the only one of the girls who is often late for school.
2) Mary is one of the girls who are often late for school.
3) How many people does the doctor know who are dying of the disease
2．意义一致原则
( (1) 集体名词做主语视其情况决定其谓语动词的单复数。
1) The class is in the charge of Mr. Li.
2) The class are taking notes in English.
( ( 2) 特殊名词（形单意复、形复意单和单复同形名词）做主语，视其意义决定其谓语动词的单复数
1) Every means has been tried.
2) Maths is the language of science.
3) Traffic police are always very busy.
(3) 代词all, none, rest, some, most等做主语，要
视其意义而决定谓语动词的单、复数。
1) All is going on very well.
2) The first two questions are difficult, but the rest
3) All are here now. are easy.
4) The rest needs no telling.
3．邻近一致原则（即谓语动词与其邻近主语保
持数的一致）
(1) 由neither…nor, either …or, not only…but also
和or等连接的两个并列主语时，谓语动词与其邻近主语保持数的一致。
1) Not only money but also men are needed.
2) He as well as I agrees with you.
3) Do you or Tom come here often
(2) 在There be句型或其他倒装结构中，谓语动
词常与其邻近主语保持数的一致。
1) There is a pen, five pencils on the desk.
2) Here comes a taxi and some buses.
注：(1)表语是复数时，谓语动词常用复数形式。
1) None of them are good singers.
2) One thirds of the population in this area are
3) What he wants are two books. workers.
(2) 由kind / type / quantity of+名词做主语时，谓
语动词跟kind, type和quantity而不是跟后面名
词保持数的一致。
1) Great quantities of fish were caught in the river by the fishermen.
2) This kind of cakes tastes good while cakes of that kind are different.
B．冠词
一．不定冠词：
1． 一般地说，泛指的单数个体名词，第一次提
及单数个体名词，要用a或an。
1) He is a worker. He is an old worker.
2) There is a book on the desk.
2． 不定冠词的位置：
(1) 不定冠词通常放在所有定语前面；但要在
特殊限定词后面。特殊限定词有：such, quite,
many, what, half, rather等( 其中half和rather也
可前置)
1) What a good boy he is!
2) He is such a good boy that everyone here love him.
(2) 如果名词前面的是由so, as, too, however
how,等词修饰时，冠词a要放在该形容词后面。
1) It’s so good a day!
2) How clever a girl!
3．省略不定冠词的几种特殊情况：
(1) As后面的名词如果是唯一职务时。（但有形
容词修饰时，要有不定冠词。）
1) He acted as interpreter.
2) He acted as an excellent interpreter.
(2) 在某一特定的范围内唯一职务。（在句中做
宾语，宾补或同位语）
1) He was elected mayor of London.
(3) 单数名词在as引导的让步状语从句中做表语。
1) Child as he is, he knows a lot.
2) Thought he is a child, he knows a lot.
(4) 单数名词做turn的表语时（此时，也不用复
数形式；但该单数名词前有形容词时，则要有不
定冠词a。）
1) After some time, he turned doctor.
2) I turned a good fellow.
4．不定冠词的几种特殊用法：
(1) 不定冠词与序数词（first和last除外）连用，表示“又、再”。
1) He read the book a second time.
(2) 不定冠词与最高级连用，表示“非常，很”。
1) It’s a most beautiful day.
(3) 不定冠词可用来做不确切的特指，就是特指具体对象，但很不明确。
1) There’s a letter for you.
2) A barber is a man whose job is to cut men’s hair.
二．定冠词：
1． 定冠词用于特指名词前面，尤其是有限定定
语的名词。
2． 定冠词的位置：
一般放在所有定语前面，但是放在前位特殊限定词all, both后面。
1) Both the boys are students.
2) All the students are listening carefully.
2．定冠词的一些特殊用法：
(1) The+ adj.表示一类性质和特征相同人或事
物，是复数概念，做主语，谓语动词一般要用复
数形式；若指抽象概念( the good, the truth, the
right, etc. ) 则用单数。
1) The poor need help.
2) The beautiful lives forever.
(2) 表示“两者中较为的一个”的形容词比较级
要加the。
1) Jack is the taller of the two students.
(3) 在all, both, each, neither, either, most,
many, much, few, a great many 等词或词组后面
of短语的名词要有the或其它限定词。( 但 a lot
of, a number of, a deal of , plenty of …没有the )
1) Many girls love dancing.
2) Many of the girls love dancing.
( (4) 名词school, bed, market, hospital, church, sea,
prison, war等表示抽象意义时，一般不用the；表
示具体地点时，则要加the。但theater, cinema,
temple 等，表抽象意义时，有冠词the。
1) His son goes to school at 6. Yesterday he went to the school to visit his son’s teacher.
2) She often goes to the temple every month.
C． 代词
一．人称代词：
1． 单数的不同人称代词排列次序一般是：you
and I, you and he, he and I, you, he and I，即通常按2，3，1或3，2，1人称排列；复数的不同人称代词排列其次序一般是：we, you and they即通常按1，2，3人称排列；第三人称男女并用时，先男后女he and she； 承认过失，表示不吉祥的事，或不好的意思时，单数按1，3，2人称排列，复数按3，2，1的人称排列。
1) I, he and you will be punished for being late.
2) They, you and we should leave there at once.
2． 在非正式英语中（日常会话）be后面的人称
代词用宾格；只有一个词的句子要用宾格。
1) – Who’s that – It’s me ( It’s I. )
2) –Does anybody want another photo – Me.
二．不定代词：
All, every, each, both, either, neither, one, no, none, some, any, many, much, few, little, another, other, such及合成词everything, everybody, everyone, no one, nobody, nothing, someone, somebody, something, anyone, anybody, anything.
1． Both, neither, either用于两者, another, all, any
none, every, some及其合成词用于三者或以上；each用于两者或以上。
2． Both, all, every（及every合成词）用于否定
句，均为部分否定；全部否定要用等neither, none, no one, nothing等。
3． Neither, few, little, nothing, none, no, no one
为否定词（但a few, a little是肯定的）。
4． 合成不定代词的定语形容词要放在这些词的
后面；如Something important, nothing serious, anything new等。
5． Another+数词+复数名词与数词+more+复数
名词都表示“又、再”；注意两者的数词位置。如：Another ten apples, ten more apples。
6． Some与any
(1) some及其合成词一般用于肯定句，any及其
合成词一般用于否定句或疑问句及条件状语从
句。如If any (不用 if some)。
1) I will go there if have any time.
(2) some用于貌似疑问句实为祈使句的句子中。
1) Would you like some tea
2) Why not bring some flowers
(3) any表示“任何”也可用于肯定句中。
1) Any child can go to school.
2) Make it any day you like.
(4) some与any用于疑问句中的不同。
1) Is there anyone in the room
2) Is there someone in the room
(5) Some修饰复数名词和不可数名词时，表示
“一些”；修饰单数名词表示“某一”（some
用于指不确定或不指明的情况，一般与单数名
词连用，复数要用certain）；some修饰数词表示
“大约”（= about）。
1) For some reason I will be able to attend the meeting. meetings.
2) For certain reasons I will be able to attend the
(6) not any = no但not any不用于句首；句首要
用no one, none或nothing
7． Each与every
(1) 两个均能做定语用，表示“每”的意思。
(2) Each 表示两者或以上的人或事物，侧重“各
自”可做主语、宾语、定语和同位语；every用
于三者或以上的人或事物，侧重“全体”，只能
做定语。each不用于否定句，而every用于否定
句表示部分否定。
1) Each room can sit about 40 people.
2) Every room is crowed with visitors.
3) Not every student studies hard.
8． No one, none与nothing
(1) No one只指人不指事物，nothing指事物, 两
者均不跟of短语; none 可指人或事物，可以跟
of短语。
(2) 询问数量（即用How many或 How much
来提问）或有范围的人或事物时，要用none来
回答，否则要用no one（人）或nothing（事物）。
1) – Who is in the room – No one.
2) – How many people did you see – None.
3) – How much did you want – None.
4) – What did you want – Nothing.
5) – Did any of my friends come here – None
6) – Did any one come here – No one.
9． Everyone, anyone, someone, no one是指人，
不可跟of短语；every one, any one, some one是指事物,可跟of短语, 既指人又指事物。
10. Other与another
(1) Other 用于两者（其中一者可以是多数的）
One+（单数名词）+the other（单数名词）,
One / some + the others / the other复数名词；
1) Some of the pencils are red, the others / the other pencils are blue.
2) He got two books; one is textbook, the other is a
(2) Some…some…others novel.
3) Some are singing, others are dancing.
(3) Another修饰或代替单数名词，用于三者或
以上人或事物。
4) This coat is too dark. Show me another, please
5) Please give me another book.
11．One的一些用法：
(1) One 表示“一人或物”有复数形式ones，所
有格形式one’s和返身代词形式oneself。
(2) One只能代替可数名词以免重复，复数名词
要用ones。
1) Please pass me the book, the one on the desk.
(3) One可加the表示特指，也可以加a或an，
表示泛指，但要有前置或后置定语。
2) The dictionary is a big one.
3) This factory is the one you visited last year.
(4) 不能说my ( 或your, their…)one，要说mine
( yours, theirs…)；但可说this one 或that one
(5) One 可以是数词也可以是替代词，强调数量
比较或有only，要用one。（×only a ）
4) There is one boy and two girls in the room
5) There is only one boy in the classroom.
12．Little 与few
(1) Few与a few修饰可数名词，little与a little
修饰不可数名词；a few与a little表示肯定，few
与little表示否定；但前面加上定冠词，指示代
词，物主代词，序数词及等就失去否定意义。
(2) little有两个意思：not much “少”和small
1) The camel eats so little water. “小”。
2) They are such little children that they cannot go to school.
3) Some few teacher attended the meeting.
4) I’ll remember the few days when I stayed together with you
(3) 常说quite a little / few; very little / few.
13．That与this和these与those
(1) That / this可以用来表示程度，意思是so。
1) Can hard work change that much
(2) This常指后面要讲到的事物，有启下作用(×
that )；that一般指上面所讲的东西，有承上作(√
this )。
2) I want to tell you this: the English party will be held on Sunday.
3) He hurt his leg yesterday. That’s why he didn’t come.
(3) Those who的结构中，只用those不用these,
this, that。
4) Those who want to attend the meeting gather at the gate at 2 this afternoon.
14．It, that, one与those
(1) 这些词都可以用来代替上文或下文出现的
人或事物，以避免重复。
(2) It用来代替原来那件东西或那件事情。
1) I thought I had lost my pen, but later I found it in my school bag.
(3) One用来代替泛指的同类单数名词，ones用
来代替泛指的复数名词, The one或the ones用来
代替特指的单、复数名词
1) Here are three pens. Which one is yours, this one or that one or the one in the box
2) These books are better than those ones.
(4) That用来代替不可数名词或特指的单数名词
(= the one )，those用来代替特指的复数名词( =
the ones )
1) The weather of Beijing is colder than that of Nanning.
2) The cars of a rabbit are longer than those of a fox.
15. Such 和that一样指前面讲过的情况，Such 前面可以有不定指示代词all, no, one, few, several, some, any, hardly等以及基数词，此时单数名词不加冠词A。
1) Such is life.
2) I may have offended, but such was not my intention.
3) There is no such thing.
4) Some such arrangement was necessary.
三．代词It的用法：
1． 用做主语指时间、距离、天气等。
1) It is half pass three now.
2) It is six miles to the nearest hospital from here.
3) It was very cold in the room.
2． 常用来做先行主语或先行宾语。
1) It’s very important for us to study hard.
2) We find it very important to study hard.
3． 常用于It be…that / who的强调句型之中，此
时注意不要用this或that来代替it。
1) It was yesterday that I met him in the street.
4． 常用于其他it开头的固定句型之中。
It be …since; It be …before; It’s a pity ( that ); It’s a wonder ( that ); It happens that; It occurs that; It is no use / good doing ( to do ); It ( This ) is+ the + 序数词+time that S+ have done sth; It ( This ) was+ the +序数词+ time that S+ had done sth
5． 通常用来代替事物，但它可以用来代替婴儿
或未能辨别性别人数的人或心目中的人。
1) – Who is it – It’s me.
6．It用作形式宾语的一种特殊用法。在一些表示“情感”的动词hate, love, like, prefer, enjoy 和appreciate(用if )以及take, see to, depend on等后常用V+ it+ when / if / that…结构。
1) I hate it when people talk with their mouths full.
2) She didn’t enjoy it when her husband drove fast.
3) See to it that you’re not late again.务必，一定要
4) I don’t like it when she tells me how to do things.
5) I like it that you come.
6) He would much appreciate it if you could do him a favor.
7) You may depend on it that they will send us some food and gas.
D．数词
一．大约数与确切数
1．大约数
表示大约数时，用量词的复数形式且带的介词of短语。Tens / hundreds / thousands / dozens / scores…of 其中scores of和dozens of表示“许多”。
2．确切数
(1) 数词+量词+复数名词two thousand books,
one hundred times, three dozen students，但score和 head却常用three score of books, ten head of cattle数词+量词+ of +复数名词的形式.
(2) 复数名词前有the, your, these等限定词修饰
时或被修饰词是代词时，一般要带of：one
hundred of them; six dozen of your books; two
score of the pens.
(3) Dozen表示确切数时，除了能与an, a 和基
数词连用外，还能用some, many, several +复数
名词的形式表达: some dozen people; several
dozen glasses
二．有关事物的编号的表达方法
(1) The +序数词+名词：the second gate
(2) 名词+基数词： Gate Two
三．有关倍数的表达方法
(1) 数词+times + as…as
1) Asia is 4 times as large as Europe.
(2) 数词+times + more…than
2) Asia is 3 times larger than Europe.
(3) 数词+times+ the+ 度量衡名词 ( size / length
/ height / depth / width…) + of
3) Asia is 4 times the size of Europe.
(4) the+ 度量衡名词( size / length / height / depth
/ width…) + of +数词+ times that +of
4) The size of Asia is 4 times that of Europe.
四．表示“又、再”的几种方法
1．不定冠词与序数词（first和last除外）连用。
1) He read the book a second time.
2．Another与基数词连用。
2) The child wanted another two apples.
3． 基数词与more连用。
3) The child wanted two more apples.
E．形容词与副词
一．形容词：
1．形容词比较级的三个句型as…as; more
…than; the most…in / of / among
(1) As…as; more…than 用于两者，形容词最高
级用于三者后以上。
(2) 注意as+ adj.+ a+ noun +as的句型。
1) German is as difficult a language as English
(3) 比较级做最高级含义使用时，注意从同类中
除开，要用other或else来排除。
1) China is larger than any other country in Asia.
2) No other metal is so useful as iron.
(4) 在使用最高级时，不要把被比较的人或事物
从同类中除开。
1) ×She is the youngest of all her sisters. （此句
不对，应把all her sisters改为all the girls）
(5) 两者比较时，必须是同类的， 否则要用that,
those, one等替带结构来进行比较。
1) The students in that school are more than those in our school.
2) The population of this city is larger than that of Suzhou.
3) A TV set made in Shanghai is better than one made in any other city.
(6) 形容词比较级与not, no, never等否定词连用
时，其含义是最高级。
How beautifully she sings! I’ve never heard a better voice.
(7) 用做表语的形容词最高级，如果不与其他
的人或比较时，通常不加定冠词the；无the
或加a的形容词最高级表“非常、很”，不表示
比较，只能用在表示感受的肯定句中。
1) We are busiest on Mondays.
2) They are most learned scholars.
(8) Not more than与no more than的不同
1) This machine is not better than that one.（两台都好）
2) This machine is no better than that one.（两台都不好）
(9) 不同类型的形容词比较级
More…than用于同一人或事物的两种性质或特征的比较，意思是“与其说…不如说”“是…而不是”；不仅可以用于形容词和副词，还可以用于以外的其他词；这种句型不用-er形式. ( 注：英语中有少数几个单音节词只有more形式，没有-er形式，它们是：like, fond, worth, right, keen, )
1) He is more brave than wise.（有勇无谋）
2) He is more diligent than clever.
3) He is more a writer than a teacher.
(10) 不是所有的形容词都有比较级。只有性质
形容词才有比较级，关系形容词如dead, blind,
Chinese, possible等没有比较级。
(11) More than 后接从句（ 含有can / could），
形式上是比较，其实质并非真正比较；这种结构
含有否定的意思。
1) It’s beautiful dress but it’s much more than I can afford.
2) That is more than I can tell.
3． 形容词常与某些介词构成固定短语，应做为
一个单位去记。Be afraid of, be good at, be poor in, be anxious about, be famous for, etc.
4．形容词后面一般跟不定式做宾语（除了busy,
worth外），且往往以主动表被动。（表示思想
感情的形容词，如glad, sorry, able, afraid, free,
anxious, careful, content, determined, eager, sure,
foolish, likely, lucky, ready, prepared, slow, will
等，其后的不定式与句子主语是主谓关系）
1) The book is easy to read.
2) The work is difficult to finish.
5． 表语形容词alive, alone, asleep, awake, well,
ill, present, possible, worth 一般只做表语，不单独做前置定语，做定语一般后置，一般也不用very来修饰( well, ill除外，present可前置或后置，其意义不同)。
1) All the people present agreed to the plan.在场的
2) This is the present member. 现在的
6． 定冠词the+形容词表一类人，是复数概念。
1) The rich are not always happy.
7．形容词做定语的基本词序是：限定词→性质→形状→颜色→来源→材料→基本特征和用途+名词；一般情况下，一个句子只有两三个形容词，除了上述规律外，还有几条可遵循的解决问题的办法：1）主观的、抽象的形容词置前，或短的形容词置前。2）客观的、具体的形容词置后，或长的形容词置后，特征用途紧跟被修饰的名词
1) He is a brave young man.
2) This is a very beautiful, big, red, Chinese wooden writing table.
3) This is a long, interesting, detective story.
4) There is a nice big new cup on the table.
8．形容词后置的情况：
(1) Some, every, any, no+ thing, body, one, where等合成词作定语。
1) We are not going anywhere very exciting.
(2) 省略介词的宾语所形成的形容词后置。
2) Is there any doctor available nearby
3) Who is the man opposite to you
(3) 具有表语作用形容词后置。
4) All the people present are against it.
5) He was the only person awake at the moment.
(4) 及物动词的过去分词作定语一般后置 us.
6) The experience gained will be of great value to
7) These artistic handcrafts made in China are very popular abroad.
(5) 计量形容词deep, high, long, tall, old, thick, wide等置于量词和疑问词 how之后。
8) How old is she
9) The shirt is 2 feet wide.
(6) 一些专有名称的形容词后置。Body politic 国家；the sum total 总额；poet laureate桂冠诗人
(7) 少数形容词，如proper（本身）, general, total,和 involved等，做定语要后置。 China proper; the cost involved; postmaster general; the sum total; secretary-general
9．有些形容词是以为-ly结尾的，如friendly,
lovely, lonely, likely, ugly, deadly, silly 等；但以-ly为结尾的词，如daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early 等既是形容词又是副词。
10．Last – least likely or suitable表示“最不可能的，最不适合的，最不愿意的”
1) He is the last person to tell a lie.
2) He’s the last person to trust with a secret.
3) That is the last thing I should expect him to do.
4) This is the last thing I’d like to do
5) He is the last man I want to see.
11．有几个有赞美意味的形容词如good, nice, fine等与and连用并连接另一个形容词，在意义上相当于一个程度副词very，对后一个形容词起修饰作用。
1) I am good and tired = I’m very tired
2) The room is good and warm.
3) He drove good and fast.
12．在It be + adj + for / of sb to do的句型中，有些形容词既可反映不定式行为的性质，又可反映行为者的特征；侧重反映人的特征的用of，侧重反映行为的性质的用for；如逻辑主语是泛指的，不具体的，用介词for，因为此时行为者不可能成为褒贬的焦点，所以形容词只反映行为的性质。这些形容词有： careful, careless, clever, cruel, foolish, friendly, good, grateful, kind, naughty, nice, polite, impolite, right, rude, silly, stupid, thoughtful, wise, wrong等
1) It’s silly for to wait. ( silly 指行为，即“你在等”这一行为是个“蠢举”)
2) It’s silly of you to believe that. ( silly指人，即“你真傻”)
3) It’s wrong for your child to have so much money.(这件事不妥，孩子不是指贪的对象，钱不一定是孩子自己要的。)
4) It’s wrong of your child to spend so much money. (指责孩子，因为他花太多钱买零食。)
5) It’s polite for the students to help the teacher.
6) You think it right for people to marry for money.
二．副词
1．副词的位置
(1) 副词做定语放在被修饰词后面。
1) People here like him.
2) He used to drop in on me on his way home.
(2) 多数副词放在动词后面，有宾语放在宾语后
1) We all study very hard.
2) We all study English hard.
(3) 频度副词( always, usually, often, seldom,
hardly, never, just, ever, etc. ) 一般放在行为动词
前面，动词或助动词后面，有多个助动词就放在
第一个助动词后面。
1) We often help each other.
2) He has never been scolded.
（just与非延续性动词连用，表示“恰好做”，要用完成时态，与延续性动词连用，表示“正在做”，要用进行时态；用于祈使句之首，表示“试请”之意。）
3) I was just thinking of my friends.
4) He had just come by that time.
5) Just have a patience. (NMET96)
（ever常用于否定句、疑问句、条件句、比较句或最高级后的定语从句中。）
6) This is the longest novel that I ( have ) ever read. (×never ) 这是我从未读过的最长的小说→这是我曾经读过的最长的小说
(4) 程度副词一般放在被修饰词前面。
1) We don’t quite agree to the plan.
（修饰可以显示出程度的形容词或副词，表示程度，意思为“相当，还算”；修饰没有程度差异的形容词或副词，表示极限，意思是“完全地，全然地”）
2) It is quite impossible to do that.
2．方位副词、动态副词there, here, in, out, down,
away, up, from, off, back, over; then, now, only, so, thus 等放在句首的句子大多采用全倒装语序（其谓语动词是移位动词，其主语必须是名词，不是代词）。
1) There goes the bell. 4) Here it is.
2) Here comes the bus. 5) Out he ran,
3) Now comes your turn. 6) Away they went.
3．同一的词根两种副词形式比较
(1) Wide, high, deep, close 与 widely, highly,
deeply, closely.前者表示实际意义上的“宽、深、
高、近”；而后者多表示象征意义或抽象意义，
分别为“广泛地，深深地，高度地，密切地”。
有-ly表示“方法、方式”，无-ly表示“状态”。
（在修饰具体动作表示具体意义时，常可互换，但若是修饰带有感彩的动词或修饰形容词、过去分词，一般要用-ly形式。）
1) They worked deep into the night.
2) I was deeply moved by the song.
3) The sun shines bright.（状态，阳光灿烂）
4) The sun shines brightly in spring.（方式，阳光和煦）
5) Watch what I do closely.
6) He lives close t the school.
7) The prisoners were closely guarded.
(2) Easy与easily
Easy只用在某些固定搭配的短语中：take it / things easy; easy come, easy go; easier said than done等，其他均用easily。
(3) Loud 与loudly
在与laugh, shout, speak, talk连用以及比较级和最高级用loud. loudly有“喧闹”意思；
1) Speak louder. I can’t hear you.
2) Someone knocked loudly at the door.
其他情况下两者均可通用。
(4) 注意以下两种同根副词的不同含义，hard &
hardly; just & justly（正义地）；near & nearly; late
& lately（最近）； most & mostly（大部分）；free
（免费）& freely（无限制地），两者不同要混淆。
补充：
1. 用形容词或副词的比较级对该词的原
级表示强调一般有如下三种句型。
(1) can’t + be / do + 比较级。意思是“再没有…比…更”
1) I can’t think of a better idea.
2) He can’t be more careless.
(2) couldn’t + have + 过去分词比较级。表示对过去情况加以强调。
3) She couldn’t have explained more clearly.
(3) can’t have + 过去分词 + 比较级。用来强调现在完成时。
4) We can’t have done more nicely.
2．Very的几不用：
(1) Very不可用来修饰形容词或副词比较级；要视情况使用下列程度副词或短语：very much, far, by far, even, still, a great deal, greatly, a bit, a little, any, a lot, etc.
1) Jane’s much / far better.
2) He drives ( very ) much faster than you.
(2) Very 也不可用来修饰形容词或副词最高级，但在very前加个限定词，也可用来修饰个别形容词最高级。
1) She put on her ( the) very best dress.
(3) Very不宜用来修饰 asleep( 用fast / deep / sound ); awake, open ( 用wide/ fully ); known, worth, received, prepared ( 用well ); alone ( 用all / much / very much ); alive, ashamed ( 用much / very much ); like( 用exactly / very much ); closed ( 用 fast / tightly )等
1) I’m wide / fully awake.
2) She seems to be fast ( deep / sound ) asleep.
3) It’s well known to all that the book is well worth
4) He is very much alive. reading.
5) He is exactly like a huge fan.
6) The house stands on the hillside all alone.
7) He found the door of study tightly closed to him.
(4) Very 一般不用来修饰无比较级的形容词perfect, dead, impossible, ready, mistaken, wrong, right, sure, able等，要用quite修饰。 things.
1) The Chinese people are quite able to do great
2) I’m quite sure that you are quite mistaken.
(5) Very 不可用来修饰没有完全形容词化的或还有动作性的分词，一般要用much / very much来修饰；very只能修饰已形容词化的或作为形容词用的分词，如 interested, interesting, pleased disappointed, excited, exciting, surprised, tired,等。
1) His question has been much / fully discussed.
2) He was much / very much pleased by what I said.
3) He is very pleased with my work.
F．连词与从句
一．连词 （并列连词和从属连词）
1. 并列连词：and, not only …but also, neither…
nor, both…and（以上表示同等关系）; otherwise, or, or else（以上表示选择关系）; but, yet, still, however（以上表示转折关系）; for, so, therefore（以上表示因果关系）
补充说明：
(1) 否定两个或以上的成分或句子通常用or或
nor不用and。
1) He doesn’t like singing or dancing.
2) He has no mother, nor, in fact, any relations.
(2) Not only…but also, neither…nor,
either…or等连接两个并列主语时，动词采取邻
近原则与最后主语保持一致。
(3) 并列连词连接两个以上并列成分时，一般只
连接最后两个并列成分。
1) She got up, dressed her child and took him to the school.
(4) 并列连词还可以用来连接并列分句，但不能
用来连接主从复合句。
2. 从属连词 （用来连接主从复合句）
从属连词主要有what, who, whom, whose, which, when, where, why, whether, whoever, whatever, how, however, whenever, wherever, whichever （疑问词类）, if, that, before, after, since, unless, as, as soon as等。
说明：
(1) Whether与if引导宾语从句时，都是“是否”
的意思； 在间接引语中，常用which或 if引出
一个没有疑问词的疑问句。一般说，在表示怀疑、
无把握时，前面的谓语动词为 ask, know, doubt,
see, learn, wonder, be not sure, etc时，两者可互换
1) I wonder whether / if the library is open to students on Sunday.
但下面情况下，要用whether：
A．如上述动词不表示“怀疑、无把握”时，只能用whether。
2) I’ll see whether I can induce him to accept it.
B．在不定式前，介词后要用whether。
3) He wondered whether to come
4) The decision whether to see her was mine alone.
5) I haven’t decided the question of whether I’ll go back home.
6) John worries about whether he hurt his sister’s feeling.
Whether前面的介词可以省略，但在worry, question, confusion等词后介不能省。
7) Everything depends (on) whether we have enough money.
8) There is some confusion about whether the preposition can be left out.
C．表示选择时。
9) He passed the exam whether by skill or by luck.
D．引出让步状语从句，表示“不论、不管是否”
10) Whether we go or stay, the result is the same.
E．在动词Discuss, decide, choose, argue, debate, etc.后一般要用whether。
We are discussing whether we attend the meeting
F．引导主语、表语、同位语从句，要用whether。
11) It makes a world of difference whether there is such training.
12) His first question was whether Allen had arrived yet.
(2) Though, although引导让步状语从句时，可和
yet, still等连用，但不能与but连用，两者意义
大致相同；但后者只用于陈述事实，不用于假设，
不能引导虚拟语气从句；前者无此限制；As引
导的让步状语从句一般情况下把表语，做状语的
副词或动词的一部分放到的前面,假如表语是单
数名词或最高级形容词时，前面无冠词a或the；
though也可以使用此格式。
1) Child as he is, he knows a lot of things.( = Though he is a child, he knows a lot of things)
2) Tallest as he is in my class, he runs slowest yet.
3) The speech is good, though it could be better. (×although)
4) Much as I like this car, I have no money to buy.
5) Try as he may, he will not succeed.
(3) Because, as, since 和for
(A) Because 引导的从句与for引导的分句均
可表示原因，但后者是并列连词，分句一般放在
后面，且分句前有逗号，主要用来表示断原因和
推测理由；because表示会引出必然结果的原因，
表示符合逻辑的理由。since和as也可引导原因
状语从句，但往往用来表示双方知道的发原因，
as 用已经存在或成立的事为理由，since多用于
消极语气的原因，有“既然” 的意思。
1) The light went out because the electric current was turned off. ( 直接原因，×for )
2) They must have passed this way because there is no other road. = They must have passed this way, for there is no other road. 必然推断原因
3) He must have sat up all night with his patient, for you see, he looks tired and sleepy.( 推断原因，×because )
4) The doctor looks tired and sleepy, for he sat up all night with his patient = The doctor looks tired and sleepy because he sat up all night with his patient.
5) The doctor looks tired and sleepy, for he sat up all night with his patient.
6) Since a lot of people make mistakes in life, Mr Smith wanted to give John a chance.
7) As it was getting very late, we soon return.
(B) 表示一个必然性推理时，四者均可，不是一个必然性推理时，只用for。
8) He must have passed this way, because / for his footprints are here.
9) Since / As his footprints are here, he must have passed this way.
10) It must be morning, for the birds are singing.
(C) 在回答why提出问题时，在强调句中，表示“不要因…而”或“不是由于…而”句型中，要用because。
11) – Why did you hide yourself – Because I was afraid.
12) It is because I want you to better in future that I have criticized you.
13) He did not leave home because he was afraid of his father.不是因为害怕他父亲而离开家
(D) 在省略句中，要用since。
14) Since so, three is no more to be said.
(4) As与like均有“象”的意思。表示此意思时，
as是个连词，引导的是一个从句或省略从句，常
与as…as, not so…as, the same…as或such…as构
成固定结构；like是个介词，后面跟的是词或词
组。as作为介词时，意思是“作为、当作” 常
与动词regard, consider, act, use, know, remember,
accept等连用，表示职业或作用。
(5) Till, until与since引导时间状语从句时，其主
句的谓语动词一定是延续性动词，否则，必须是
否定。
1) I haven’t seen him since I left ( / live ) here.
(6) When, while与as均能引导时间状语从句，表
示“当…时”，但有区别：
(A) When的意义最广；它可以表示从句动作发生后主句动作接着发生，也可表示从句动作发生过程中，主句动作发生，即主、从句的动作或同时，或先后发生；动词可延续也可不延续的。
(B) While强调主句的动作延续所指的整个时间，即主句的动作或事情在从句的动作或事情的进程中发生；从句动作必须是延续性的。
(C) As强调主句和从句动作同时发生，从句谓语动词常是动作动词，不能是状态或静态动词。
如主句表示的是短暂动作，而从句说的时间是一段时间，某事正在进行又发生另一件事 时，三者可通用。
1) He fell asleep when ( / as / while ) he was reading.
(D) 表示“每当…时候”，“就在这时…”或主句动作发生在从句动作之后时，要用when。
2) I will see you when I return.
3) It’s cold when it snows.
4) She smiles when you praise her.
5) I was taking a bath when the door bell rang.
(E) 表示两种正在发展或变化的情况，即“慢慢发生的现象”，有“随着”意思的，要用as，此时从句的谓语动词通常是那些表示动作意义的动词，而不能是be, have, like, belong等表示状态或静态意义的动词。
6) She wept as she spoke.边讲边哭 weaker.
7) As one grows older, one’s memory becomes
8) While you are there, can you get me some stamps (×As )
(F) 表示两个同时进行的延续动作或情况，有“趁着”的意思的，要用while。
9) She wept while she spoke.说话时不停地哭
10) They work while they study.半工半读（动作
交错发生，非同时发生）(× as )
10) Study hard while you are young.
(G) When和while从句可以用省略形式，as从句不可。另外常说as a child / a young man很少用when代替，不能用while。注意：常说when doing或while doing不说as doing，常说when done, 不说while done或as done。
注意：while还可以是并列连词，表示“对比”
等多种意思。
11) You like sports, while I’d rather read.
(H)As后面可接一个为众人所接受的事实，作为
一种强调手段来加强对主句内容的肯定，常译为
“的的确确”等。
12) He is dead as I live. （他的的确确是死了。）
13)That’s the truth, as true as I’m standing here.（事情真相确实如此。）
(7) Before可以是连词也可以是介词或副词，它
引导的时间状语从句除了常用的“之前”的意思
外，常用来表示动作的迟缓性（即“…才” ）
和动作的快速性（即“来不及…就”，此时常和
can连用 ）而It’s … since用来表示时间的长度。
1) It will be 10 years before they meet again.
2) His bike ran into a tree before he could jumped off his bike. ( = When his bike ran into a tree, he hadn’t jumped off his bike. Before = when…not
3) It is 10 years since I last met him.
(8) Who与whoever引导主语从句时，who具有
疑问的味道，有“哪一个”之意；whoever具有
“任何人” 之意，相当于anyone。
1) Who will take her class for her is not decided yet. the end.
2) Whoever does wrong is to be answered for in
(9) Whoever, whatever, wherever, whenever,
however, whichever等-ever为结尾的连词，既可
引导让步状语从句= no matter + 疑问词；也可引
导主语、宾语、表语、状语从句，相对应的连词
who, what, where, when, how, which等
(10)Unless 多数情况下相当下if…not，但不是总
是这样；当表示从句的动作不发生，主句的情况
才发生时，要用 if…not不用 unless。
1) I’ll be glad if Tom doesn’t come to our party this evening.
2) We’ll be surprised if they don’t have an accident.（不出事故才怪）
(11) 能够做连词用的其他词或词组：动词save
（除了，只是）, suppose（如果，假设）；分词
seeing（考虑到）, supposing（假定）saving（除
了）providing（如果）, considering（考虑到）
given（考虑到）；副词 directly, immediately（一
…就，马上，立刻）；时间名词the moment, the
instant, the minute, the second, the+序数词+ time,
every time, each time等；in case ( that), now that
（既然）等短语均可做连词用。
(12) Except, but, save, than, as 等连词前面有do
或to do时，后面接不带to的不定式，否则后面
的不定式要带to。
1) It had no other effect except to make him all the anxious.
(13) 一般从句与主句之间要有连词，但下面情
况连词可省略：
(A) 引导宾语从句的that；（说明：有两个或以上的宾语从句时，第一个that可省，后面的that不能省；在动词agree, calculate, learn, suggest, state, reply, object, hold等后that也一般不省。）
(B) 引导定语从句且在从句中做宾语的连词which, whom, that。
二．从句
从句有名词性从句（主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句），形容词性从句（定语从句）和副词性从句（状语从句）。
1．名词性从句：
(1) 主语从句：常用来it代替，而把真正主语从
句后置；除了少数what引导的主语从句外，主
语从句做主语时，其谓语动词采用单数形式；注
意，主句与从句之间要有连词。
1) That Mary’s coming late for school again made her teacher very angry.
2) It is well known that China is a developing country.
(2) 宾语从句：
(A) 宾语从句有，1) 由that；2) if, whether；3) 疑问词和4) 感叹词等引导的四种类型宾语从句。
1) You can imagine how happy I am.
(B) 连词that一般可省略。
(C) 如主句的谓语动词是过去时，从句的谓语动
词一般用过去的各种时态（除了客观存在和真理
等外）。
(D) 除了连词放在从句之首外从句要用陈述句语序。
(E) Do you think / do you suppose等可插入一个特殊问句中，此时该问句要用陈述句语序。
1) When do you think he will come back
(F) Doubt, wonder, not know, not sure, not decide, not certain等要跟if或疑问词引导的宾语从句；no wonder, no / not doubt, know, sure, certain, decide等要跟that引导的宾语从句。
1) There is no doubt that he is a good student.
2) I am not sure whether he will come back.
(G)介词后可以跟由疑问词（除which外）引导的宾语从句，只有except, in, but, besides, save等五个介词可以引导that引起的宾语从句。
1) He thinks of how he can do more for the people.
2) Are you sure of what you’ll speak at the meeting
3) The girl has not changed at all except that she is no longer so shy.
4) You may depend on it that they will send us some food and gas. （it是先行宾语，that是真正宾语）
(H) 某些表示“情感”的动词，如hate, love, like, enjoy, appreciate等后面不直接带宾语从句，而先用it做形式宾语，再跟真正的宾语从句。
1) I hate it when people talk with their mouths full.
(3) 表语从句：“是”动词后的从句是表语从句。
注意，表语从句也要有that或疑问词等连词。
(4) 同位语从句：同位语从句主要用来说明和解释前面名词。其先行词仅是一些含有内容的名词，如 advice, answer, belief, conclusion, fact, fear, hope, idea, information, instruction, invention, message, news, order, possibility, problem, truth, promise, proposal, question, saying, suggestion, word等。其连词除了that之外还可以是其疑问词。that本身无实义，但一般不能省略，他在句中也不担任任何成份。要注意，同位语从句连词that不能用which代替。（ 定语从句中的词that, which在句中要担任一定成份如主语,宾语等，担任宾语时可以省略。）其中advice, order, proposal和suggestion的同位语从句谓语动词，要用( should )do的形式。
1) He knows all the facts ( that / which ) you know. （定语从句）
2) They were all very much worried over the fact that you were sick.（同位语从句）
3) You have no idea how worried I was!（同位语）
2．副词性从句–状语从句
(1) 条件状语从句和时间状语从句不用将来时，
而用一般时代替将来时。
1) If you study hard, you will make progress.
2) When I have time next week, I will come.
（但当从句的动作是主句的结果时，从句仍然可以用will。）
3) If it will make you happier, I will stop smoking.
(2) 当状语从句的主语与主句相同，且是代词，
谓语动词又有动词be，该从句的主语和be动词
可省略。（定语从句也同）
1) He did the work as ( he was ) told to.
2) He was reading a book while ( he was ) waiting the bus.
3．形容词从句–定语从句
(1) 关系代词which, that , whom在从句中做宾语
时可以省略。
(2) 关系副词where, when使用时，要有两个前
提：先行词是地点或时间名词；该名词在从句中
做状语。
1) This is the city where he was born.
2) This is the city ( which / that ) he visited last years.
3) I never forget the day when I first came to school.
4) I never forget the days ( which / that ) I spent together with them.
（先行词是time又有序数词或其他修饰词修饰，连词只能用that，如无修饰词，则when和 that两者均可。）
5) Be sure to visit us next time that you come to China.
6) It was that time when / that he live in Beijing.
(3) 只用that不用which引导的定语从句：
(A) 先行词是物并被all, any, some, very, only, few, little, no, every, just等所修饰的。
1) That’s all that I knew.
2) You can take any seat that is free.
3) This is the very book that I want.
(B) There be开头的先行词。
1) There is a seat in the corner that is still free.
(C) 先行词被序数或形容词最高级所修饰的。
1) This is the best novel that I’ve read.
2) This was the first computer that was made in China.
(D) 先行词是be后面的表语的。
1) It’s a book that will help you a lot.
(E) 关系代词在从句中做表语的。
1) He is not the man that he used to be.
(F) Which或who开头的先行词。
1) Who is the person that is standing at the gate
2) Which one of us that knows something about physics does not know this
(G) 先行词是人又是物的。
1) They talked for about half an hour of things and persons that they remembered in the school.
(4) That不引导非限定性的定语从句，也不做介
词宾语。
(5) 定语从句的谓语动词与先行词保持人称和
数的一致。
1) The boy is one of the students who come from
2) The boy is the only one of the students who comes from the south.
(6) 如果定语从句的主语是代词，谓语动词有be
动词时，主语和动词可省略，就变成分词短语
做定语。
1) The boy ( who is ) wearing thick glasses is my brother.
2) The girl ( who is ) dressed in red is my sister.
(7) As与which均可引导没有先行词的定语从句
共同点：(A) 两者均可在S+V+P或S+V的结构
的非限定性定语从句中做主语，此时两者可互换
1) He said he had lost the book, which / as was true
2) He failed in the examination, which / as seemed natural.
(B) 两者均可在S+V+O的结构的非限定性定语从句中作宾语，此时两者可互换。
3) He was an Englishman, which / as I knew from his accent.
4) I was very useful to him, which /as he realized.
不同点：(A) 在S+V+O的结构的非限定性定语从句中做主语时，通常用which不用as；Which引导的此类从句对主句所说的事情进行补充说明，表明事物的状态或结果，有“这一点，这件事”的意思 ( which = and this / that )。
5) Tom has made progress, which delighted us.
(B)在S+V+O+C的结构的非限定性定语从句中做主语或宾语时，通常用which不用as。
6) He changed his mind, which made me angry.
7) Betty always tells a lie, which her parents find strange.
(C) As引导的非限定性定语从句通常用在表示肯定意义的从句中，不能用在表示否定意义的从句中；which不受此限制。
8) Mummy treats me just like a baby, which I can’t bear.
9) She has married again, which was unexpected.
(D) 当从句的动词为show, say, tell, report, see, hear, watch, believe, give, know, announce, guess, remember and expect等被动形式时，要用as，不用which，表示说话人对话语的看法、态度、解释或评论，具有“正如，象，由…而知，与…一致”等意思。
10) She is very careful, as her work shows.
11) There was a bar around here, as I remember.
(E) As引导的非限定性定语从句可放句首也可放句末；而which引导的非限定性定语从句只放句末
12) As was natural, he married her.
13) As he realized, I was very useful to him.
(8) Way, distance和reason后的定语从句。
(A) 先行词是way, distance的定语从句，其连
词可以是that, in which或×。
1) This is the way ( that / in which ) I did it.
2) The distance ( that ) light travels in one second is 186,000 kilometers.
(B) 先行词是reason的定语从句，其连词可以
是why, for which, that或×。
1) That is the reason why / for which he is leaving
2) That is the reason ( why) I did it. so soon.
3) The reason that they didn’t go to see the house is that they prefer to live in an apartment.
说明：如先行词在从句中不是做状语的，不属此用法。
(9) 通常情况下，先行词是the + time, day, month, year等名词时，其后的限定性定语从句只能用that引导或省略。在此结构中，如主句的谓语动词是现在时或将来时，从句要用现在完成时，如主句的谓语动词是过去时，从句要用过去完成时
1) This is / will be the first time I have been there.
(10) 关系代词that的一些特殊用法：
表示方式that ( = in which )；表示时间 that ( = when = +which )；表示地点 that ( = where = + which )；表示原因 that ( why )；以上情况that均可省略。
1) I’ll never forget the Monday that ( = when = on which ) you first arrived.
2) This is the place that ( = where = at which ) he works.
G．介词
介词是一种虚词，表示它与后面名词或代词与其它成分的关系。
一．介词与其他词类构成短语的用法
1. 与动词构成固定词组：如(1) vi + (adv.)+ prep:
look for, look after, lead to, stick to look forward to, catch up with, etc. (2 ) vt + prep.: leave for, search for, do with, etc.
2. 与形容词构成固定词组：如, be famous for,
be wrong with, be sure of, be good at, be poor in
3. 与名词构成固定词组：如 (1) prep +noun: by
bus, on food, at night, in need; in the evening, at the meeting, on the farm, etc. (2) noun + prep: a visit to, the key to, a friend of, the praise for, a aim at, etc. 以上都要以一个单位来记忆。
二．某些常用介词的用法对比
1. 位置介词at, in 和on：at 表示点at the station；
in表示空间，范围in the room；on表示线与面的接触on the desk, on the river。
1) London is on the Thames.
2. 时间介词at, in 和on：at表示钟点at four；
in表示抽象的上下午，晚上in the morning，及一段时间in a year；on表示具体某一天、上下午，晚上on Sunday, on Saturday morning 。
3. At的一些主要用法：
除了以上所讲用法外，常用来表示目标、方向或
对象laugh at, fire at；也表示“…之后就”
1) He came to me. He came at me.
2) The bear came at me.
3) He threw the ball at me. He threw it to me.
4) She cried at the news.
4. On的一些主要用法：除了以上所讲用法外，
常用来表示一个正在进行的动作或状态on fire, on show, on duty, on guard, on business, on sale, on holiday, etc；on+动名词或动作名词表示“一…就” on one’s arrival, on one’s return。
1) On arriving home, I changed my mind.
2) On his return from Europe, she set to work.
注：做副词用常用来表示“继续”go on, move on,
keep on, etc.
5. After与in指时间时，均有“在之后”之意，
after用于具体某个时刻；in用于一段时间。after有时也可以跟一段时间，但只用于一般过去时。
1) He will be back at four o’clock.
2) He will be back in four hours.
3) He finished the work after a week.
6. For与since指时间时，都要求谓语动词是延
续性的；for跟一段时间，since跟某刻时间；除it is …since 句型外，句子要用现在完成时；for可用现在完成时，也可用于其他时态。
7. With, in & by ( = using )
表示“用”的概念时，一般用with，特别是“用…工具”；只有在说话、表达、书写、绘 画等少数场合用in；另外in用于没有冠词的物质 和抽象名词前；而with只用有冠词或其他限定词的可数名词前。By ( doing )常用于表示用方法、手段、用…交通工具。
1) Please write in pencil / ink.
2) He was writing with a pencil.
3) The cooker works by electricity.
4) He saluted her by raising his hat.
8. Besides, except, but & except for
(A) Except – but not, not including 除了…之外
Except for – not including“除了…之外”两部分使用的词或词组不是同一类的，后半部分对前半部分所说的基本情况在细节上加以修正；But -
not including除了…之外；Besides – as well as, if you don't count除了…之外还有。
1) They go there every day except Sunday.
2) They all want to sleep except Li Ming.
3) Does John know any other foreign languages besides French.
(B) Except and but are often used with no, not, very, never, all, always, any and wh- words … ( especially but ) Besides is often used with other, another, else, more, too, also…
4) Your picture is good except for some of the colors.
5) Now the wood was silent except for the leaves.
6) Except for you, I should dead by now.
*Picture and color and wood and leaves are not the same things of a kind.
Nothing / no one but / except – only
7) There is nothing but / except a desk in the room.
Except is not only a prep but also a conj
8) He rarely went anywhere except to his office.
Except 受限制较少，强调排除部分；
But只能用在no, not, never, all, always, any及其合成词, every及其合成词 and wh-words等之后，强调整句内容。
8． 介词for, since, until, till, from…to引导的时间
状语是延续性的，其句子的谓语动词必须是延续性的，否则要用否定形式，也有例外。
1) He has gone to Shanghai for two weeks. ( = He has gone to Shanghai and will stay there for two weeks.
2) I haven’t received his letter for a year.
3) I have received his letters for a year.
9. Before, after, since, until等，既可是连词引导
从句，又可是介词，但如果后面有动词，要用动名词形式做宾语，被动要用being done的形式，这与when和while不同。
1) After being heated, it extends.
2) When heated, it extends.
10. 汉语“在之下”有几个介词可表示：“在阳
光下”要用in, in the sun, in the sunshine；“在…帮助下”要用with, with one’s help, with the help of；“在…指导下，在…领导下，在…统治下”要用under：under the leadership of, under the control of , under the rule of。
12. About, around & round
About 做“周围、四周”解时，常和一些有活动意义的动词、名词，如go, drive, kick, fly, look, swim, walk, wander 等连用；表示这个意思时 around 和round可以置换 about，但 about不能置换 around和 round（如 round the clock昼夜不停， round the world环游世界， round the corner 在拐角处）；about 只是here and there, in all direction之意；
Round和 around 的不同在于round 具有in a circle motion“兜圈子” 和 in a reverse motion “反过来、往返”之意，属于动态；around具有 in a circle，in all directions属于静态；一般短语中两者可以互换，但在绝对动态和往返中，只能用round；如果表示“传播开”时，可用 about。
13. After & behind
After 意思是“在时间之后、在顺序之后”，“追
求目的”，“依照、仿照”以动态为主，指次序，
常与动词be, go, run, seek, take等连用，追逐，
追求，追踪，探索等。在表示“在之后” behind
主要指空间位置，静态。
1) Please shut the door after you.
1) You are behind the time.
1) The girl took after her mother in maths ability.
1) She is always seeking after the truth.
14. At & with
At常与一些形容词或过去分词连用，表示引起某种情绪或动作的原因。
1) He looked surprised at seeing us.
1) They were shocked at his idea of being an artist.
1) He was excited at the idea of going by train.
表示产生某种生理状态或心理状态的原因。
1) She was shivering with cold. （生理状态）
1) The city is gay with a forest of red flags and a sea of faces. 红旗如林，人山人海，喜气洋洋
15. 除少数介词but, except, instead of外，介词
后面要跟动名词做宾语。
1) A word of encouragement might have made me respect instead of hate him.
2) He proposes to do some work instead of to watch TV.
3) Things would be better instead of worse.
4) They went there on foot instead of by bus.
16．表示人的性格、品质、气质、特征和素质等，通常用介词in，其后接某人或人名。
1) We have lost a first-rate teacher in Jim.
2) You will always find a good friend in me
17．By后面的名词基本没有冠词；by用于表示计量单位，意为“按…记”，其后接表示单位的名词前总有定冠词；但是如是抽象名词，则通常不用定冠词。
1) The cooker works by electricity.
2) They are paid by the hour / by the month.
3) Are bananas sole by weight or at how much a piece ( by the dozen; by the yard; by the day…)
18．在的It is + adj + for / of sb to do结构中，其逻辑主语一般是用for来引导，但表示人的品质或特征的形容词要用of不用for。
1) It is good for him to get up early.
2) It is good of him to help me.
3) It was foolish of her to say such a thing.
H．动词
一．情态动词：
1. Can表能力，可能性和允诺。
1) Two eyes can see more than one.
2) This can’t be true.
3) You can have the book when I have finished it.
补充说明：
(1) Can只用来表示理论上的可能性，表示实际
上的可能性要用may。
1) Accidents can happen.
2) He may know his address.
3) Water can be turned into ice.
4) We have got two choices: we can go to the police or we can forget all about it.
(2) Can用来表推测时，只用于否定句和疑问句。
1) Can they still be waiting for us
2) He can’t have taken it home.
(3)Can 在以下特殊情况下，可用于肯定句：一
是表示抽象的可能性，即理论上或逻辑上分析是
可能的，但是实际上未必会发生；二是后接“be
get / seem / become+形容词”，表示“有时会，时常会”。
1) Anyone can make mistakes.
2) My father can be very unreasonable.
(4) Could不用来表过去做某事的能力，此时要
用 was / were able to。
1) Could you speak English then
2) He was able to escape the big fire.
2. (1) May用来表示可能性和请求允许；最普通
的用法是谈论可能性，要求（和给以）许可。
1) That’s all; you may go now.
2) He may not be there now.
(2) May用来表示实际可能性，但表可能性时不
用于疑问句，may not表示“可能不”，can not
表示“不可能”。
(3) May + 动词原形构成虚拟，用来表祝愿。
1) May you both be happy.
2) May the New Year bring you all your heart desires.
补充说明：
(1) 在请求允许的用法中，can, may, could或
might均能用，could, might不是过去时态，是指
将来，往往含有婉转或尊敬的意思，其答语是给
予允许不能用could或might来回答，要用can
或 may。
1) – Could I use your bike – Of course, you can.
(2) May / might (just) as well 表示因为没有更好的、更有趣的或更有用的事可做而去做某事，意思是“不妨、还是不如、还是…的好”。
2) I haven’t got anything to do, so I may as well come with you.
(3) Can’t be too怎样…也不过分，越…越好。
3) You can’t be too careful with them.
3. Must主要有两种用法：
(1) 与不定式连用表主观上需要。（have to表客
观上的需要）
(2) 与肯定句构成推测，形式有must be, must
being done, must have done和must have been
doing；否定或疑问的推测要用can来完成。
1) They must be anxious to know the result.
2) They must be worrying about our safety.
3) They must have arrived by now.
4) Someone must have been using it. The cover is off.
3． Shall 一般用于第一人称，单纯表示将来时
(1) Shall如果用于第二、三人称，表示命令、威
胁、保证等。
1) You shall suffer for this!
2) You shall have an answer by tomorrow.
(2) Should的过去式是，但还有一个意思是“应该”。Should have done 是“本应该做”而没做，带有批评口气。
1) You should have been here on time.
(3) Shall I / Shall we … 等句型表示提供帮助，提出建议，要求给以指示和征求意见，此时不用will。
1) Shall I carry your bag
2) Shall we go out for lunch
4． Will 做为助动词，表将来时，用于第二、三
人称；做为情态动词时，可以用于任何人称，并可用于时间或条件状语从句，也用来表示临时决定要做某事。
1) If you will listen to me, I will give you some advice.（意愿）
2) If you will not tell anyone, I will tell you.(允诺)
3) –If you will have it so（坚持那样）
–I have nothing to say against it.（决心）
4) Since you don’t want to go, I will go alone. (× be going to do )
5． Dare与need既可做情态动词，也可做实义
动词，注意它们之间的区别；两者做情态动词时，常用于疑问或否定句；其中need可以跟do，to do或doing。在否定和疑问句中dare后面可接带to或不带to的不定式。
1) He daren’t go any higher.
2) How dare they do such a thing
3) We must dare to think, speak up and act.
4) They don’t dare ( to) make a sound.
5) I don’t believe you need worry.
6) Does she need to know it
7) My hair needs washing badly.
二．连系动词
连系动词分三种类型
1. 单纯表示一个特征或状态：be, feel, look, seem
sound, taste, small, appear, etc.
2. 表示一种状态变成另一种状态：turn, get, go,
become, grow, fall, come, run, prove, etc.
3. 表示保持某种状态：remain, keep, continue, stay, etc.
说明：
(1) 这些词常跟形容词或名词做表语，构成复合
谓语。
(2) 除了be之外，其他连系动词均能用进行时态；都能做实义动词用。
1) It is getting colder and colder.
(3) Feel, look, sound, taste和smell等与感觉器官
有关的连系动词，常用主动形式表被动意义，有
“…起来”的意思。
1) It looks very beautiful.
(4) Turn 多指外形、颜色等方面的变化，也常用来表示某种意外或不愉快的改变或发展；go多指气味等方面的变化、变质，也可用于颜色的变化；become多指身份、境况等方面的变化；get多指天气、体力、感情等方面的变化，不能用于颜色的变化或变坏；run表示特定情况的变化、变坏。
1) I turned cook and they turned cook, too.
2) Leaves go brown.
3) He went red with anger.
三．实义动词
1. 实义动词有3种人称，16种时态, 2种语态，
3种语气和2种数的变化。
2. 实义动词有谓语动词与非谓语动词之分。
3. 实义动词有及物动词与不及物动词之分。
及物动词还可分为完全及物动词和不完全及物动词。不完全及物动词除了要带宾语外，还要带宾补，意思才能完整。
1) She made him a good husband because she made him a good wife.
4. 实义动词还有延续与不延续之分。延续性动
词与一段时间状语连用，不一定要用于现在完成时；非延续性动词一般不与一段时间状语连用。在否定句中，则不受此限制。
1) He has received her letter for two years. (×)
2) He hasn’t received her letter for a year. (√)
3) He has had her letter for two years. (√)
4) He has received letters for two years. (√)
5) Mary has come here for five years. (=Mary has come already and will stay here for five days.)
6) In the past few years he bought all kinds of useful books.
7) For three years so many students have joined the Party.
注：5）某些趋向性动词，如go, come, leave等，和一段时间状语连用，不是说明动作持续的时间，而是说明动作发生后所产生的状态延续的时间。4)-6)-7）说明动作在一段时间里的多次反复。
四．动词的的语态
1. 不及物动词不能用于被动语态，但不及物动
词加介词词组是及物的，可以用于被动语态。
2. 除了少数及物动词( 如cost, fit, have, suit,
lack )外，及物动词可以用于被动语态。
3. 被动语态与be+过去分词的系表机构形式相
同意义不同，前者表一时动作，某次行为，动词要求是及物动词；后者表状态，动词不受此限制。
1) The window is broken.（是烂的）
2) The window was broken（是烂的；被打烂）
3) He is gone. Spring is come.
4. 主动形式表被动的几种情况：
(1) 形容词后面的不定式做宾语，且句子主语
逻辑上是不定式的宾语时，以主动形式表被动
意义。此结构的不定式动词必须是及物动词或
不及物动词加介词的词组。
1) The question is easy to answer.
2) The boy is hard to look after.
(2) Need, require, want等表“需要、要求”的动
词，后面跟动名词做宾语，以主动形式表被动意
义。此结构也可用不定式被动式表示。
1) The child wants educating in China.
2) The door needs repairing. (= to be repaired )
(3) 感觉动词feel, look, taste, smell, sound, eat,
prove等做连系动词用时，以主动形式表被动意
义，有“…起来…”的意思。
1) The cloth feels soft.
(4) 某些表示主语内在“品质”或“性能”的不
及物动词，如act, burn, blow, catch, clean, cook,
cut, draw, drive, fill, keep, lock, last, move, open ,
run, read, sell, sing, shut, wash, wear和write等，
如果主语是非生物的，句子有行为方式状语的或
与否定词连用或用在否定句中，也以主动形式表
被动意义，表示处于某种性质或状态。
1) The picture books sell well.
2) The room cleans very easily.
3) Her book does not sell.
4) The door can’t open.
5) That coat doesn’t wash well.
6) This poem reads well.
(5) 在there be和sb has sth to do的句型中，不
定式在句中做定语，也以主动形式表被动意义。
1) I have something important to do.
2) There is something important to do.
3) There is nothing to do. ( 无事可干)
4) There is nothing to be done – we’ll have to buy another one. ( 没有办法 )
(6) 动词blame, seek, let和compare等其不定式
做表语，也以主动形式表被动意义。
1) The reason is not far to seek.
2) For that, Mr. Tom is not to blame at all.
3) The house is to let at a low rental.
(7) 形容词worth后面跟动名词做宾语，也以主
动形式表被动意义。
1) The film is well worth seeing.
(8) 有些短语有the表被动，没有the表主动( in the charge of, in charge of; in the control of, in control of, in the command of, in command of; in the possession of, in possession of)。
五．动词的时态
1. 一般现在时的基本用法：
(1) 该时态较多地用于状态动词，表示主语的特
征、性格、能力、职务、身份、籍贯或状态；也
可用于动作动词，但与频度副词连用。
1) He is a student.
2) He often goes to school on foot.
(2) 应用于经常行为或动作，表示现在的习惯行
为和经常发生、经常反复的动作；一般不用某次
行为或某个动作。
(3) 表示现在的状态、特征或不受时间限制的客
观存在和真理。
1) When I was a child, my teacher told me the earth is round.
(4) 在时间状语从句、条件状语从句、The more
…, No matter wh-…,引导的从句及make sure
(that)…的宾语从句中表示将来动作。（即这些从
句不用将来时，而用一般时代之。）
1) The harder you study, the greater progress you will make.
(5) 表示预定的计划、安排而将要进行的事情，
尤其指动身、达到或开会。
1) The conference opens the day after tomorrow.
2) The plane takes off at 5 o’clock.
2. 静态动词( be, have, belong, contain, depend,
hold, include, matter, own, owe, possess, resemble, etc.)、非延续性动词和表示状态、感觉、感情、从属与占有等动词( believe, consider, expect, find, forget, imagine, intend, know, mind, realize, agree, recognize, remember, suppose, think, disagree, dislike, have, have, like, love, pity, prefer, want, appear, feel, hear, look, notice, remain, see, seem, smell, sound, taste、及一些表示极短暂的动作的动词jump, burst, break, stop, knock, etc. 不用进行时态，而用一般现在时或一般过去时。
3. 现在完成时的基本用法：
(1) 与现在有关系，对现在有影响，而动作是过
去某一时刻开始，动作可能已结束，也可能没结束。
1) I have opened the door.
2) I have studied English for 5 years.
(2) 句子出现since, for, up to now, in the past/ last
…等时间状语。
1) The great changes have taken place in the past 20 years in China.
(3) 在句型It / This is / will be+ the+序数词+ time
that的从句中。
1) – Do you know our town at all – No, this is the first time I have been here.
2) Don’t forget it; it will be the first time I have spoken in public.
注意：现在完成时不用于由when引导的特殊疑
4. 过去完成时的基本用法： 问句中。
一般下列情况下才用过去完成时
(1) 有by引导的过去时间状语。
1) By the end of last years, we have learned 3000 English words.
(2) 强调两个过去动作的先后比较，发生在前的
用过去完成时，在后的用一般过去时。
1) When I got there, he had gone to work.
(3) 表示想、希望、打算、计划，如intend, mean,
hope, expect, think, suppose, plan等动词，，用过去完成时表示本来打算做而实际没做的动作，表示“本来…但”。
1) I had meant to go the party, but I was busy.
(4) 用于hardly …when, scarcely… when, no sooner…than等表示“一…就”的句型。
1) No sooner had he seemed the letter than he started back home.
2) Hardly had I reached the station when the train started.
(5) 在句型It ( This ) was+ the +序数词+ time that
的从句中。
1) This was the second time that he had broken the window.
(6) 用于虚拟条件状语从句中，wish及as if的
从句中，表示与过去事实或愿望相反。
1) They are talking as if they had been friends for many years.
2) If you had studied hard, you would have passed the exam.
3) I wish I had gone to the party yesterday.
5. 过去进行时的基本用法：
(1) 过去某一时刻或某一段时间正在进行的动
作，往往有个过去时间状语。
1) When I came to see him, he was doing his homework yesterday.
(2) 用过去进行时来强调动作的延续。（用一般
过去时表示动作已结束。）
1) She was writing a book about China last years, but I don’t know whether she has finished .
(3) 过去进行时用于intend, expect, plan, look
forward to, arrange等动词，表示本来打算做而
实际没做的动作。
1) He was arranging the meeting for this morning but it was put off because we were busy.
补充说明：
1. 表示位置变化与否的移位动词如come, sail,
go, leave, start, stay, die等的进行时态，一般用来
表将来时。
1) I’m leaving for Beijing tomorrow.
2. 在日常交际中，常会遇到本来想做但由于种
种原因而没做的事情，英语在这方面有几种表示
方法。
(1) 表示想、希望、打算、计划，（如intend, mean,
hope, expect, think, suppose, plan）等动词，用过去完成时表示本来打算做而实际没做的动作，表示“本来…但”。
1) I had meant to go the party, but I was busy.
(2) 以上动词的过去式+ to have done
1) We hoped to have caught the 9:30 train, but I found it gone.
2) I’m sorry you can’t recite it. I thought you to have learnt it by heart.
(3)用intend, expect, plan, look forward to, ar